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Cuspidi C, Gherbesi E, Tadic M. Salt-sensitive hypertension in young people: How can we predict the risk of hypertensive heart disease? J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2024. [PMID: 39046435 DOI: 10.1111/jch.14876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2024] [Accepted: 07/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Cesare Cuspidi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Elisa Gherbesi
- Department of Cardio-Thoracic-Vascular Diseases, Foundation IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano, Italy
| | - Marijana Tadic
- Cardiology Department, University Heart Center Ulm, University Ulm, Ulm, Germany
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Gafane-Matemane LF, Craig A, Kruger R, Alaofin OS, Ware LJ, Jones ESW, Kengne AP. Hypertension in sub-Saharan Africa: the current profile, recent advances, gaps, and priorities. J Hum Hypertens 2024:10.1038/s41371-024-00913-6. [PMID: 38698111 DOI: 10.1038/s41371-024-00913-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
Recent global and regional reports consistently confirm the high and increasing prevalence of hypertension in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with poor detection, treatment, and control rates. This narrative review summarises the burden of hypertension in SSA and recent findings from community-based hypertension management strategies. We further outline prominent risk factors according to recent data and associated underlying mechanisms for hypertension development. An extensive review of literature showed that most countries have reported on the prevalence of hypertension during 2017-2023, despite limitations linked to the lack of nationally representative studies, heterogeneity of sampling and data collection methods. Task-shifting approaches that assign roles to model patients and community health workers reported improved linkage to healthcare services and adherence to medication, with inconsistent findings on blood pressure (BP)-lowering effects over time. The regularly reported risk factors include unhealthy diet, sedentary lifestyle, increased adiposity and underweight, ageing, level of education, and/or income as well as psychosocial factors. Newer data on the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to hypertension and potential areas of intervention are reported from children and adults and include, among others, salt-handling and volume overload, endothelial function, BP dipping patterns and the role of human immunodeficiency virus . To conclude, significant strides have been made in data reporting from SSA on the burden of hypertension in the region as well as biomarker research to improve understanding and identification of areas of intervention. However, gaps remain on linkage between knowledge generation, translation, and implementation research. Coordinated studies addressing both discovery science and public health are crucial to curb hypertension development and improve management in SSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lebo F Gafane-Matemane
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
- SAMRC Research Unit for Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Ashleigh Craig
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit (DPHRU), University of the Witwatersrand, Soweto, 1864, South Africa
| | - Ruan Kruger
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
- SAMRC Research Unit for Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Omotayo S Alaofin
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Lisa J Ware
- SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit (DPHRU), University of the Witwatersrand, Soweto, 1864, South Africa
| | - Erika S W Jones
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Groote Schuur Hospital and Kidney and Hypertension Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Andre Pascal Kengne
- Non-Communicable Diseases Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Francie Van Zijl Dr, Parow Valley, Cape Town, 7501, South Africa
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha, South Africa
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Meng H, Guo L, Kong B, Shuai W, Huang H. Nomogram based on clinical features at a single outpatient visit to predict masked hypertension and masked uncontrolled hypertension: A study of diagnostic accuracy. Medicine (Baltimore) 2022; 101:e32144. [PMID: 36626526 PMCID: PMC9750695 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000032144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Patients with masked hypertension (MH) and masked uncontrolled hypertension (MUCH) are easily overlooked, and both cause target organ damage. We propose a prediction model for MH and MUCH patients based on clinical features at a single outpatient visit. Data collection was planned before the index test and reference standard were after. Thus, we retrospectively collect analyzed 804 subjects who underwent ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) at Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University. These patients were divided into normotension/controlled hypertension group (n = 121), MH/MUCH (n = 347), and sustained hypertension (SH)/sustained uncontrolled hypertension group (SUCH) (n = 302) for baseline characteristic analysis. Models were constructed by logistic regression, a nomogram was visualized, and internal validation by bootstrapping. All groups were performed according to the definition proposed by the Chinese Hypertension Association. Compared with normotension/controlled hypertension, patients with MH/MUCH had higher office blood pressure (BP) and were more likely to have poor liver and kidney function, metabolic disorder and myocardial damage. By analysis, [office systolic blood pressure (OSBP)] (P = .004) and [office diastolic blood pressure (ODBP)] (P = .007) were independent predictors of MH and MUCH. By logistic regression backward stepping method, office BP, body mass index (BMI), total cholesterol (Tch), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and left ventricular mass index are contained in this model [area under curve (AUC) = 0.755] and its mean absolute error is 0.015. Therefore, the prediction model established by the clinical characteristics or relevant data obtained from a single outpatient clinic can accurately predict MH and MUCH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Meng
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
- Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Liang Guo
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
- Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Bin Kong
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
- Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Wei Shuai
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
- Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - He Huang
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
- Cardiovascular Research Institute of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
- * Correspondence: He Huang, Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, 238 Jiefang Road, Wuhan 430060, Hubei, PR China (e-mail: )
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Gafane-Matemane LF, Kruger R, Van Rooyen JM, Gona PN, Schutte AE. Soluble (Pro)renin Receptor Is Adversely Associated with Indices of Left Ventricular Structure and Function: The African-PREDICT Study. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis 2022; 9:jcdd9050130. [PMID: 35621841 PMCID: PMC9144018 DOI: 10.3390/jcdd9050130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aims to compare soluble (pro)renin receptor [s(P)RR] levels between black and white adults and to explore the associations of left ventricular (LV) structure and function with s(P)RR in the total and ethnicity-stratified groups. The study sample included 1172 apparently healthy black (n = 587) and white (n = 585) participants of the African-PREDICT study aged 20−30 years. Echocardiography was performed to determine relative wall thickness (RWT), LV mass index, LV ejection fraction and stroke volume index (SVi). s(P)RR was analyzed from serum samples, while plasma renin activity-surrogate (PRA-S) and eq angiotensin II were determined using the RAS™ Fingerprint. s(P)RR was higher in the white participants compared to the black participants (p < 0.001). In multivariable-adjusted linear regression analyses, we observed a positive association between RWT and s(P)RR (β = 0.141; p = 0.005) and negative associations of LV ejection fraction (β = −0.123; p = 0.016) and SVi (β = −0.144; p = 0.004) with s(P)RR only in white adults. Higher s(P)RR observed in white vs. black participants was associated with higher RWT and poorer LV function only in young white adults but not in their black counterparts. These results suggest that s(P)RR may contribute to LV remodeling and dysfunction in white populations due to its role in volume−pressure regulation and its proinflammatory as well as profibrotic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lebo F. Gafane-Matemane
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; (R.K.); (J.M.V.R.); (A.E.S.)
- Medical Research Council: Research Unit for Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +27-18-299-2293
| | - Ruan Kruger
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; (R.K.); (J.M.V.R.); (A.E.S.)
- Medical Research Council: Research Unit for Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Johannes M. Van Rooyen
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; (R.K.); (J.M.V.R.); (A.E.S.)
- Medical Research Council: Research Unit for Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Philimon N. Gona
- College of Nursing & Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts Boston, 100 Morrissey Boulevard, Boston, MA 02125, USA;
| | - Aletta E. Schutte
- Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; (R.K.); (J.M.V.R.); (A.E.S.)
- Medical Research Council: Research Unit for Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
- School of Population Health, University of New South Wales, The George Institute for Global Health, Sydney 2052, Australia
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Stock JM, Chelimsky G, Edwards DG, Farquhar WB. Dietary sodium and health: How much is too much for those with orthostatic disorders? Auton Neurosci 2022; 238:102947. [PMID: 35131651 PMCID: PMC9296699 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2022.102947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
High dietary salt (NaCl) increases blood pressure (BP) and can adversely impact multiple target organs including the vasculature, heart, kidneys, brain, autonomic nervous system, skin, eyes, and bone. However, patients with orthostatic disorders are told to increase their NaCl intake to help alleviate symptoms. While there is evidence to support the short-term benefits of increasing NaCl intake in these patients, there are few studies assessing the benefits and side effects of long-term high dietary NaCl. The evidence reviewed suggests that high NaCl can adversely impact multiple target organs, often independent of BP. However, few of these studies have been performed in patients with orthostatic disorders. We conclude that the recommendation to increase dietary NaCl in patients with orthostatic disorders should be done with care, keeping in mind the adverse impact on dietary NaCl in people without orthostatic disorders. Modest, rather than robust, increases in NaCl intake may be sufficient to alleviate symptoms but also minimize any long-term negative effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Stock
- Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States of America
| | - Gisela Chelimsky
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States of America
| | - David G Edwards
- Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States of America
| | - William B Farquhar
- Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States of America.
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Liu J, Yang X, Zhang P, Guo D, Xu B, Huang C, Xue Y, Zhang H. Association of Urinary Sodium Excretion and Left Ventricular Hypertrophy in People With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Cross-Sectional Study. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:728493. [PMID: 34650519 PMCID: PMC8505965 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.728493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has been well documented that left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is highly associated with the incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Evidence indicated that high sodium intake was closely related with LVH in general population. However, information is not available regarding the association between urinary sodium excretion and LVH in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This study aimed to explore the association between urinary sodium excretion and LVH in patients with T2DM. METHODS This cross-sectional analysis included baseline data from 1,556 individuals with T2DM enrolled in the NanFang Prospective Diabetes Study (NFPDS). Urinary sodium excretion levels were measured from 24-hour urine samples of inpatients and morning fasting urine samples of outpatients. Left ventricular dimensions were assessed by echocardiography. The associations between urinary sodium excretion and the risks of cardiovascular events, LVH and left ventricular mass index (LVMI) were examined using linear regression analysis, logistic regression and restricted cubic splines (RCS). RESULTS Urinary sodium excretion levels were positively associated with cardiometabolic risk factors, including systolic blood pressure, body mass index, waist circumference and LVMI (All P<0.001). Odds ratios of the highest quartile of urinary sodium excretion compared with the lowest quartile were 1.80 (95% CI, 1.28-2.54; P=0.001) for LVH and 1.77 (95% CI, 1.06-2.94; P=0.028) for CVD, after adjusted for demographics, lifestyle risk factors and cardiovascular risk factors. Multivariable-adjusted RCS analysis of the association between urinary sodium excretion and LVMI showed a significant association (P=0.001) and lacked evidence of a nonlinear association (P=0.406). CONCLUSION This study indicated that high urinary sodium excretion was independently associated with increased risk of LVH and CVD in patients with T2DM, suggesting that control of sodium intake may be valuable for the prevention of diabetic cardiovascular complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianfang Liu
- Department of Endocrinology and metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoyu Yang
- Department of Endocrinology and metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Peizhen Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology and metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dan Guo
- Department of Endocrinology and metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bingyan Xu
- Department of Endocrinology and metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chensihan Huang
- Department of Endocrinology and metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yaoming Xue
- Department of Endocrinology and metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huijie Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology and metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Shock and Microcirculation, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Food Safety and Health Research Center, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Musso N, Gatto F, Nista F, Dotto A, Shen Z, Ferone D. Left Ventricular Mass Reduction by a Low-Sodium Diet in Treated Hypertensive Patients. Nutrients 2020; 12:E3714. [PMID: 33266329 PMCID: PMC7761364 DOI: 10.3390/nu12123714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the left ventricular mass (LVM) reduction induced by dietary sodium restriction. PATIENTS AND METHODS A simple sodium-restricted diet was advised in 138 treated hypertensives. They had to avoid common salt loads, such as cheese and salt-preserved meat, and were switched from regular to salt-free bread. Blood pressure (BP), 24-h urinary sodium (UNaV) and LVM were recorded at baseline, after 2 months. and after 2years. RESULTS In 76 patients UNaV decreased in the recommended range after 2 months and remained low at 2 years. In 62 patients UNaV levels decreased after 2 months and then increased back to baseline at 2 years. Initially the two groups did not differ in terms of BP (134.3 ± 16.10 / 80.84 ± 12.23 vs.134.2 ± 16.67 / 81.55 ± 11.18 mmHg, mean ± SD), body weight (72.64 ± 15.17 vs.73.79 ± 12.69 kg), UNaV (161.0 ± 42.22 vs.158.2 ± 48.66 mEq/24 h), and LVM index (LVMI; 97.09 ± 20.42 vs.97.31 ± 18.91 g/m2). After 2years. they did not differ in terms of BP (125.3 ± 10.69 / 74.97 ± 7.67 vs.124.5 ± 9.95 / 75.21 ± 7.64 mmHg) and body weight (71.14 ± 14.29 vs.71.50 ± 11.87 kg). Significant differences were seen for UNaV (97.3 ± 23.01 vs.152.6 ± 49.96 mEq/24 h) and LVMI (86.38 ± 18.17 vs.103.1 ± 21.06 g/m2). Multiple regression analysis: UNaV directly and independently predicted LVMI variations, either as absolute values (R2 = 0.369; β = 0.611; p < 0.001), or changes from baseline to +2years. (R2 = 0.454; β = 0.677; p < 0.001). Systolic BP was a weaker predictor of LVMI (R2 = 0.369; β = 0.168; p = 0.027; R2 = 0.454; β = 0.012; p = 0.890), whereas diastolic BP was not correlated with LVMI. The prevalence of left ventricular hypertrophy decreased (29/76 to 15/76) in the first group while it increased in the less compliant patients (25/62 to 36/62; Chi2p = 0.002). CONCLUSION LVM seems linked to sodium consumption in patients already under proper BP control by medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natale Musso
- Centre for Secondary Hypertension, Unit of Clinical Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa Medical School, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy; (F.G.); (F.N.); (A.D.); (Z.S.); (D.F.)
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Overwyk KJ, Quader ZS, Maalouf J, Bates M, Webster J, George MG, Merritt RK, Cogswell ME. Dietary Sodium Intake and Health Indicators: A Systematic Review of Published Literature between January 2015 and December 2019. Adv Nutr 2020; 11:1174-1200. [PMID: 32449929 PMCID: PMC7490163 DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmaa049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
As the science surrounding population sodium reduction evolves, monitoring and evaluating new studies on intake and health can help increase our understanding of the associated benefits and risks. Here we describe a systematic review of recent studies on sodium intake and health, examine the risk of bias (ROB) of selected studies, and provide direction for future research. Seven online databases were searched monthly from January 2015 to December 2019. We selected human studies that met specified population, intervention, comparison, outcome, time, setting/study design (PICOTS) criteria and abstracted attributes related to the study population, design, intervention, exposure, and outcomes, and evaluated ROB for the subset of studies on sodium intake and cardiovascular disease risks or indicators. Of 41,601 abstracts reviewed, 231 studies were identified that met the PICOTS criteria and ROB was assessed for 54 studies. One hundred and fifty-seven (68%) studies were observational and 161 (70%) focused on the general population. Five types of sodium interventions and a variety of urinary and dietary measurement methods were used to establish and quantify sodium intake. Five observational studies used multiple 24-h urine collections to assess sodium intake. Evidence mainly focused on cardiovascular-related indicators (48%) but encompassed an assortment of outcomes. Studies varied in ROB domains and 87% of studies evaluated were missing information on ≥1 domains. Two or more studies on each of 12 outcomes (e.g., cognition) not previously included in systematic reviews and 9 new studies at low ROB suggest the need for ongoing or updated systematic reviews of evidence on sodium intake and health. Summarizing evidence from assessments on sodium and health outcomes was limited by the various methods used to measure sodium intake and outcomes, as well as lack of details related to study design and conduct. In line with research recommendations identified by the National Academies of Science, future research is needed to identify and standardize methods for measuring sodium intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine J Overwyk
- Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
- IHRC, Inc. Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Zerleen S Quader
- Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
- IHRC, Inc. Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Joyce Maalouf
- Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Marlana Bates
- Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Jacqui Webster
- The George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Mary G George
- Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Robert K Merritt
- Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mary E Cogswell
- Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Nista F, Gatto F, Albertelli M, Musso N. Sodium Intake and Target Organ Damage in Hypertension-An Update about the Role of a Real Villain. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E2811. [PMID: 32325839 PMCID: PMC7215960 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17082811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Salt intake is too high for safety nowadays. The main active ion in salt is sodium. The vast majority of scientific evidence points out the importance of sodium restriction for decreasing cardiovascular risk. International Guidelines recommend a large reduction in sodium consumption to help reduce blood pressure, organ damage, and cardiovascular risk. Regulatory authorities across the globe suggest a general restriction of sodium intake to prevent cardiovascular diseases. In spite of this seemingly unanimous consensus, some researchers claim to have evidence of the unhealthy effects of a reduction of sodium intake, and have data to support their claims. Evidence is against dissenting scientists, because prospective, observational, and basic research studies indicate that sodium is the real villain: actual sodium consumption around the globe is far higher than the safe range. Sodium intake is directly related to increased blood pressure, and independently to the enlargement of cardiac mass, with a possible independent role in inducing left ventricular hypertrophy. This may represent the basis of myocardial ischemia, congestive heart failure, and cardiac mortality. Although debated, a high sodium intake may induce initial renal damage and progression in both hypertensive and normotensive subjects. Conversely, there is general agreement about the adverse role of sodium in cerebrovascular disease. These factors point to the possible main role of sodium intake in target organ damage and cardiovascular events including mortality. This review will endeavor to outline the existing evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Natale Musso
- Unit of Hypertension, Clinical Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Ospedale Policlinico San Martino Genova, University of Genoa Medical School, 6-16132 Genoa, Italy; (F.N.); (F.G.); (M.A.)
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Excess sodium from dietary salt (NaCl) is linked to elevations in blood pressure (BP). However, salt sensitivity of BP varies widely between individuals and there are data suggesting that salt adversely affects target organs, irrespective of BP. RECENT FINDINGS High dietary salt has been shown to adversely affect the vasculature, heart, kidneys, skin, brain, and bone. Common mediators of the target organ dysfunction include heightened inflammation and oxidative stress. These physiological alterations may contribute to disease development over time. Despite the adverse effects of salt on BP and several organ systems, there is controversy surrounding lower salt intakes and cardiovascular outcomes. Our goal here is to review the physiology contributing to BP-independent effects of salt and address the controversy around lower salt intakes and cardiovascular outcomes. We will also address the importance of background diet in modulating the effects of dietary salt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin T Robinson
- Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, 540 South College Avenue, 201M, Newark, DE, 19713, USA
| | - David G Edwards
- Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, 540 South College Avenue, 201M, Newark, DE, 19713, USA
| | - William B Farquhar
- Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, 540 South College Avenue, 201M, Newark, DE, 19713, USA.
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