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Maekawa T, Motokawa R, Kawashima R, Tamaki S, Hara Y, Kawakami F, Ichikawa T. Biphenotypic Cells and α-Synuclein Accumulation in Enteric Neurons of Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 Knockout Mice. Dig Dis Sci 2024:10.1007/s10620-024-08494-7. [PMID: 38849592 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-024-08494-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 is a molecule that is responsible for familial Parkinson's disease. Our previous findings revealed that leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 is expressed in the enteric nervous system. However, which cells in the enteric nervous system express leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 and whether leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 is associated with the structure of the enteric nervous system remain unclear. The enteric nervous system is remarkable because some patients with Parkinson's disease experience gastrointestinal symptoms before developing motor symptoms. AIMS We established a leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 reporter mouse model and performed immunostaining in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 knockout mice. METHODS Longitudinal muscle containing the myenteric plexus prepared from leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 reporter mice was analyzed by immunostaining using anti-green fluorescent protein (GFP) antibody. Immunostaining using several combinations of antibodies characterizing enteric neurons and glial cells was performed on intestinal preparations from leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 knockout mice. RESULTS GFP expression in the reporter mice was predominantly in enteric glial cells rather than in enteric neurons. Immunostaining revealed that differences in the structure and proportion of major immunophenotypic cells were not apparent in the knockout mice. Interestingly, the number of biphenotypic cells expressing the neuronal and glial cell markers increased in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 knockout mice. Moreover, there was accumulation of α-synuclein in the knockout mice. CONCLUSIONS Our present findings suggest that leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 is a newly recognized molecule that potentially regulates the integrity of enteric nervous system and enteric α-synuclein accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsunori Maekawa
- Department of Regulation Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-Ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan.
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan.
- Research Facility of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Design, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan.
| | - Ryuichi Motokawa
- Department of Regulation Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-Ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
| | - Rei Kawashima
- Department of Regulation Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-Ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
- Research Facility of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Design, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Shun Tamaki
- Department of Regulation Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-Ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
- Research Facility of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Design, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yusuke Hara
- Department of Regulation Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-Ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
| | - Fumitaka Kawakami
- Department of Regulation Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-Ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
- Department of Health Administration, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
- Research Facility of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Design, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Takafumi Ichikawa
- Department of Regulation Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-Ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
- Research Facility of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Design, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
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Østergaard FG. Knocking out the LRRK2 gene increases sensitivity to wavelength information in rats. Sci Rep 2024; 14:4984. [PMID: 38424139 PMCID: PMC10904730 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-55350-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a gene related to familial Parkinson's disease (PD). It has been associated with nonmotor symptoms such as disturbances in the visual system affecting colour discrimination and contrast sensitivity. This study examined how deficiency of LRRK2 impacts visual processing in adult rats. Additionally, we investigated whether these changes can be modelled in wild-type rats by administering the LRRK2 inhibitor PFE360. Visual evoked potentials (VEPs) and steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs) were recorded in the visual cortex and superior colliculus of female LRRK2-knockout and wild-type rats to study how the innate absence of LRRK2 changes visual processing. Exposing the animals to stimulation at five different wavelengths revealed an interaction between genotype and the response to stimulation at different wavelengths. Differences in VEP amplitudes and latencies were robust and barely impacted by the presence of the LRRK2 inhibitor PFE360, suggesting a developmental effect. Taken together, these results indicate that alterations in visual processing were related to developmental deficiency of LRRK2 and not acute deficiency of LRRK2, indicating a role of LRRK2 in the functional development of the visual system and synaptic transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freja Gam Østergaard
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Ottiliavej 9, 2500, Valby, Denmark.
- GELIFES, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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3
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Coelho P, Fão L, Mota S, Rego AC. Mitochondrial function and dynamics in neural stem cells and neurogenesis: Implications for neurodegenerative diseases. Ageing Res Rev 2022; 80:101667. [PMID: 35714855 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2022.101667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria have been largely described as the powerhouse of the cell and recent findings demonstrate that this organelle is fundamental for neurogenesis. The mechanisms underlying neural stem cells (NSCs) maintenance and differentiation are highly regulated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Mitochondrial-mediated switch from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation, accompanied by mitochondrial remodeling and dynamics are vital to NSCs fate. Deregulation of mitochondrial proteins, mitochondrial DNA, function, fission/fusion and metabolism underly several neurodegenerative diseases; data show that these impairments are already present in early developmental stages and NSC fate decisions. However, little is known about mitochondrial role in neurogenesis. In this Review, we describe the recent evidence covering mitochondrial role in neurogenesis, its impact in selected neurodegenerative diseases, for which aging is the major risk factor, and the recent advances in stem cell-based therapies that may alleviate neurodegenerative disorders-related neuronal deregulation through improvement of mitochondrial function and dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Coelho
- CNC, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra Polo 1, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Lígia Fão
- CNC, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra Polo 1, Coimbra, Portugal; FMUC- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra Polo 3, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Sandra Mota
- CNC, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra Polo 1, Coimbra, Portugal; III, Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - A Cristina Rego
- CNC, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra Polo 1, Coimbra, Portugal; FMUC- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra Polo 3, Coimbra, Portugal.
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4
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Walter J, Bolognin S, Poovathingal SK, Magni S, Gérard D, Antony PMA, Nickels SL, Salamanca L, Berger E, Smits LM, Grzyb K, Perfeito R, Hoel F, Qing X, Ohnmacht J, Bertacchi M, Jarazo J, Ignac T, Monzel AS, Gonzalez-Cano L, Krüger R, Sauter T, Studer M, de Almeida LP, Tronstad KJ, Sinkkonen L, Skupin A, Schwamborn JC. The Parkinson's-disease-associated mutation LRRK2-G2019S alters dopaminergic differentiation dynamics via NR2F1. Cell Rep 2021; 37:109864. [PMID: 34686322 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that neurodevelopmental alterations might contribute to increase the susceptibility to develop neurodegenerative diseases. We investigate the occurrence of developmental abnormalities in dopaminergic neurons in a model of Parkinson's disease (PD). We monitor the differentiation of human patient-specific neuroepithelial stem cells (NESCs) into dopaminergic neurons. Using high-throughput image analyses and single-cell RNA sequencing, we observe that the PD-associated LRRK2-G2019S mutation alters the initial phase of neuronal differentiation by accelerating cell-cycle exit with a concomitant increase in cell death. We identify the NESC-specific core regulatory circuit and a molecular mechanism underlying the observed phenotypes. The expression of NR2F1, a key transcription factor involved in neurogenesis, decreases in LRRK2-G2019S NESCs, neurons, and midbrain organoids compared to controls. We also observe accelerated dopaminergic differentiation in vivo in NR2F1-deficient mouse embryos. This suggests a pathogenic mechanism involving the LRRK2-G2019S mutation, where the dynamics of dopaminergic differentiation are modified via NR2F1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Walter
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Silvia Bolognin
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Suresh K Poovathingal
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Stefano Magni
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Deborah Gérard
- Department of Life Science and Medicine (DLSM), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Paul M A Antony
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Sarah L Nickels
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg; Department of Life Science and Medicine (DLSM), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Luis Salamanca
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Emanuel Berger
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Lisa M Smits
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Kamil Grzyb
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Rita Perfeito
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, Coimbra 3004-504, Portugal
| | - Fredrik Hoel
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies Vei 91, 5009 Bergen, Norway
| | - Xiaobing Qing
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Jochen Ohnmacht
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg; Department of Life Science and Medicine (DLSM), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | | | - Javier Jarazo
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Tomasz Ignac
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Anna S Monzel
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Laura Gonzalez-Cano
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Rejko Krüger
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg; Transversal Translational Medicine, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Strassen, Luxembourg; Centre Hospitalier de Luxembourg, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg
| | - Thomas Sauter
- Department of Life Science and Medicine (DLSM), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Michèle Studer
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Inserm, 06108 Nice, France
| | - Luis Pereira de Almeida
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, Coimbra 3004-504, Portugal; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Karl J Tronstad
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies Vei 91, 5009 Bergen, Norway
| | - Lasse Sinkkonen
- Department of Life Science and Medicine (DLSM), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Alexander Skupin
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg; Center for Research of Biological Systems, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jens C Schwamborn
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg.
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5
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Suzzi S, Ahrendt R, Hans S, Semenova SA, Chekuru A, Wirsching P, Kroehne V, Bilican S, Sayed S, Winkler S, Spieß S, Machate A, Kaslin J, Panula P, Brand M. Deletion of lrrk2 causes early developmental abnormalities and age-dependent increase of monoamine catabolism in the zebrafish brain. PLoS Genet 2021; 17:e1009794. [PMID: 34516550 PMCID: PMC8459977 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
LRRK2 gain-of-function is considered a major cause of Parkinson's disease (PD) in humans. However, pathogenicity of LRRK2 loss-of-function in animal models is controversial. Here we show that deletion of the entire zebrafish lrrk2 locus elicits a pleomorphic transient brain phenotype in maternal-zygotic mutant embryos (mzLrrk2). In contrast to lrrk2, the paralog gene lrrk1 is virtually not expressed in the brain of both wild-type and mzLrrk2 fish at different developmental stages. Notably, we found reduced catecholaminergic neurons, the main target of PD, in specific cell populations in the brains of mzLrrk2 larvae, but not adult fish. Strikingly, age-dependent accumulation of monoamine oxidase (MAO)-dependent catabolic signatures within mzLrrk2 brains revealed a previously undescribed interaction between LRRK2 and MAO biological activities. Our results highlight mzLrrk2 zebrafish as a tractable tool to study LRRK2 loss-of-function in vivo, and suggest a link between LRRK2 and MAO, potentially of relevance in the prodromic stages of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Suzzi
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Reiner Ahrendt
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Stefan Hans
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Svetlana A. Semenova
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Avinash Chekuru
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Paul Wirsching
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Volker Kroehne
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Saygın Bilican
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Shady Sayed
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sylke Winkler
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics (MPI-CBG), Dresden, Germany
| | - Sandra Spieß
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Anja Machate
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Jan Kaslin
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Pertti Panula
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Michael Brand
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- * E-mail:
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6
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Nickels SL, Walter J, Bolognin S, Gérard D, Jaeger C, Qing X, Tisserand J, Jarazo J, Hemmer K, Harms A, Halder R, Lucarelli P, Berger E, Antony PMA, Glaab E, Hankemeier T, Klein C, Sauter T, Sinkkonen L, Schwamborn JC. Impaired serine metabolism complements LRRK2-G2019S pathogenicity in PD patients. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2019; 67:48-55. [PMID: 31621607 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2019.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 09/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a multifactorial disorder with complex etiology. The most prevalent PD associated mutation, LRRK2-G2019S is linked to familial and sporadic cases. Based on the multitude of genetic predispositions in PD and the incomplete penetrance of LRRK2-G2019S, we hypothesize that modifiers in the patients' genetic background act as susceptibility factors for developing PD. To assess LRRK2-G2019S modifiers, we used human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neuroepithelial stem cells (NESCs). Isogenic controls distinguish between LRRK2-G2019S dependent and independent cellular phenotypes. LRRK2-G2019S patient and healthy mutagenized lines showed altered NESC self-renewal and viability, as well as impaired serine metabolism. In patient cells, phenotypes were only partly LRRK2-G2019S dependent, suggesting a significant contribution of the genetic background. In this context we identified the gene serine racemase (SRR) as a novel patient-specific, developmental, genetic modifier contributing to the aberrant phenotypes. Its enzymatic product, d-serine, rescued altered cellular phenotypes. Susceptibility factors in the genetic background, such as SRR, could be new targets for early PD diagnosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Louise Nickels
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg; Life Sciences Research Unit (LSRU), Systems Biology Group, University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg; Integrated Biobank of Luxembourg (IBBL), Luxembourg Institute of Health, L-3555, Dudelange, Luxembourg
| | - Jonas Walter
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Silvia Bolognin
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Deborah Gérard
- Life Sciences Research Unit (LSRU), Systems Biology Group, University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Christian Jaeger
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Xiaobing Qing
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Johan Tisserand
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Javier Jarazo
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Kathrin Hemmer
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Amy Harms
- Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Analytical Biosciences, Leiden University, NL-2333, CC Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Rashi Halder
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Philippe Lucarelli
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Emanuel Berger
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Paul M A Antony
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Enrico Glaab
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Thomas Hankemeier
- Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Analytical Biosciences, Leiden University, NL-2333, CC Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Christine Klein
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck, D-23538, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Thomas Sauter
- Life Sciences Research Unit (LSRU), Systems Biology Group, University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Lasse Sinkkonen
- Life Sciences Research Unit (LSRU), Systems Biology Group, University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Jens Christian Schwamborn
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, L-4367, Belvaux, Luxembourg.
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7
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Jiang ZC, Chen XJ, Zhou Q, Gong XH, Chen X, Wu WJ. Downregulated LRRK2 gene expression inhibits proliferation and migration while promoting the apoptosis of thyroid cancer cells by inhibiting activation of the JNK signaling pathway. Int J Oncol 2019; 55:21-34. [PMID: 31180559 PMCID: PMC6561619 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2019.4816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging studies have indicated that leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is associated with thyroid cancer (TC). The present study investigated the effect of LRRK2 on the cell cycle and apoptosis in TC, and examined the underlying mechanisms in vitro. To screen TC-associated differentially expressed genes, gene expression microarray analysis was conducted. Retrieval of pathways associated with TC from the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes database indicated that the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway serves an essential role in TC. SW579, IHH-4, TFC-133, TPC-1 and Nthy-ori3-1 cell lines were used to screen cell lines with the highest and lowest LRRK2 expression for subsequent experiments. The two selected cell lines were transfected with pcDNA-LRRK2, or small interfering RNA against LRRK2 or SP600125 (a JNK inhibitor). Subsequently, flow cytometry, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling, a 5-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine assay and a scratch test was conducted to detect the cell cycle distribution, apoptosis, proliferation and migration, respectively, in each group. The LRRK2 gene was determined to be elevated in TC based on the microarray data of the GSE3678 dataset. The SW579 cell line was identified to exhibit the highest LRRK2 expression, while IHH-4 cells exhibited the lowest LRRK2 expression. LRRK2 silencing, through inhibiting the activation of the JNK signaling pathway, increased the expression levels of genes and proteins associated with cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in TC cells, promoted cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, and inhibited cell migration and proliferation in TC cells, indicating that LRRK2 repression could exert beneficial effects through the JNK signaling pathway on TC cells. These observations demonstrate that LRRK2 silencing promotes TC cell growth inhibition, and facilitates apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. The JNK signaling pathway may serve a crucial role in mediating the anti-carcinogenic activities of downregulated LRRK2 in TC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng-Cai Jiang
- Department of General Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325000, P.R. China
| | - Xiao-Jun Chen
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325015, P.R. China
| | - Qi Zhou
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325015, P.R. China
| | - Xiao-Hua Gong
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325015, P.R. China
| | - Xiong Chen
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325015, P.R. China
| | - Wen-Jun Wu
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325015, P.R. China
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8
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Schwamborn JC. Is Parkinson's Disease a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and Will Brain Organoids Help Us to Understand It? Stem Cells Dev 2018; 27:968-975. [PMID: 29415619 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2017.0289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease. The incidence of PD cases increases with age, accordingly classically PD is considered to be an age-associated neurodegenerative disease. In this review, the hypothesis that PD is actually a neurodevelopmental disorder that is compensated for a long time will be discussed. However, patients who suffer from PD typically do not show symptoms early in their lives. This implies that, if the hypothesis that PD has a significant neurodevelopmental component is correct, the developmental defects are compensated for a long time. Furthermore, these developmental defects might not causally lead to the disease but increase the susceptibility for disease onset after a "second hit." In this logic, deregulated developmental processes might represent the "first hit." Even a minor developmental defect could lead to a reduced compensatory capacity or reduced fault tolerance of the entire system. In such a case of an already imbalanced system one or more additional hits could perturb the entire system sufficiently to bring it out of balance and lead to the pathology and symptoms which we classify as PD. However, if the developmental hypothesis and the "multiple hit" hypothesis are correct, an early diagnosis of these developmental defects might allow the start of a therapy for at-risk individuals before disease pathology becomes severe and before symptoms occur. Modern stem cell technologies, including the generation of personalized brain organoids, might play an important role in these strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens C Schwamborn
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, Developmental and Cellular Biology, University of Luxembourg , Belvaux, Luxembourg
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Christensen KV, Smith GP, Williamson DS. Development of LRRK2 Inhibitors for the Treatment of Parkinson's Disease. PROGRESS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2017; 56:37-80. [PMID: 28314412 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmch.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Linkage and genome-wide association studies have identified a genetic risk locus for late-onset Parkinson's disease in chromosome 12, originally identified as PARK6. The causative gene was identified to code for a large multifunctional protein, LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2). The combined genetic and biochemical evidence supports a hypothesis in which the LRRK2 kinase function is causally involved in the pathogenesis of sporadic and familial forms of PD, and therefore that LRRK2 kinase inhibitors could be useful for treatment. Although LRRK2 has so far not been crystallised, the use of homology modelling and crystallographic surrogates has allowed the optimisation of chemical structures such that compounds of high selectivity with good brain penetration and appropriate pharmacokinetic properties are now available for understanding the biology of LRRK2 in vitro and in vivo. This chapter reviews LRRK2 biology, the structural biology of LRRK2 and gives an overview of inhibitors of LRRK2.
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Affiliation(s)
- K V Christensen
- Neuroscience Drug Discovery, H. Lundbeck A/S, Valby, Denmark
| | - G P Smith
- Neuroscience Drug Discovery, H. Lundbeck A/S, Valby, Denmark
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10
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López de Maturana R, Lang V, Zubiarrain A, Sousa A, Vázquez N, Gorostidi A, Águila J, López de Munain A, Rodríguez M, Sánchez-Pernaute R. Mutations in LRRK2 impair NF-κB pathway in iPSC-derived neurons. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:295. [PMID: 27863501 PMCID: PMC5116223 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0761-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) contribute to both familial and idiopathic forms of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Neuroinflammation is a key event in neurodegeneration and aging, and there is mounting evidence of LRRK2 involvement in inflammatory pathways. In a previous study, we described an alteration of the inflammatory response in dermal fibroblasts from PD patients expressing the G2019S and R1441G mutations in LRRK2. Methods Taking advantage of cellular reprogramming, we generated induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines and neurons thereafter, harboring LRRK2G2019S and LRRK2R1441G mutations. We used gene silencing and functional reporter assays to characterize the effect of the mutations. We examined the temporal profile of TNFα-induced changes in proteins of the NF-κB pathway and optimized western blot analysis to capture α-synuclein dynamics. The effects of the mutations and interventions were analyzed by two-way ANOVA tests with respect to corresponding controls. Results LRRK2 silencing decreased α-synuclein protein levels in mutated neurons and modified NF-κB transcriptional targets, such as PTGS2 (COX-2) and TNFAIP3 (A20). We next tested whether NF-κB and α-synuclein pathways converged and found that TNFα modulated α-synuclein levels, although we could not detect an effect of LRRK2 mutations, partly because of the individual variability. Nevertheless, we confirmed NF-κB dysregulation in mutated neurons, as shown by a protracted recovery of IκBα and a clear impairment in p65 nuclear translocation in the LRRK2 mutants. Conclusions Altogether, our results show that LRRK2 mutations affect α-synuclein regulation and impair NF-κB canonical signaling in iPSC-derived neurons. TNFα modulated α-synuclein proteostasis but was not modified by the LRRK2 mutations in this paradigm. These results strengthen the link between LRRK2 and the innate immunity system underscoring the involvement of inflammatory pathways in the neurodegenerative process in PD. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-016-0761-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakel López de Maturana
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Valérie Lang
- Laboratory of Ubiquitylation and Cancer Molecular Biology, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Amaia Zubiarrain
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Amaya Sousa
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Nerea Vázquez
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Ana Gorostidi
- Genomics Platform and Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Research Institute, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Julio Águila
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Adolfo López de Munain
- Neurology Department, Donostia Universitary Hospital, Neuroscience Area, Instituto Biodonostia, San Sebastián, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research Network in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute Carlos III, Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Neurosciences, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Manuel Rodríguez
- Laboratory of Ubiquitylation and Cancer Molecular Biology, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Rosario Sánchez-Pernaute
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain.
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11
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Prabhudesai S, Bensabeur FZ, Abdullah R, Basak I, Baez S, Alves G, Holtzman NG, Larsen JP, Møller SG. LRRK2 knockdown in zebrafish causes developmental defects, neuronal loss, and synuclein aggregation. J Neurosci Res 2016; 94:717-35. [PMID: 27265751 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Although mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are the most common cause of genetic Parkinson's disease, their function is largely unknown. LRRK2 is pleiotropic in nature, shown to be involved in neurodegeneration and in more peripheral processes, including kidney functions, in rats and mice. Recent studies in zebrafish have shown conflicting evidence that removal of the LRRK2 WD40 domain may or may not affect dopaminergic neurons and/or locomotion. This study shows that ∼50% LRRK2 knockdown in zebrafish causes not only neuronal loss but also developmental perturbations such as axis curvature defects, ocular abnormalities, and edema in the eyes, lens, and otic vesicles. We further show that LRRK2 knockdown results in significant neuronal loss, including a reduction of dopaminergic neurons. Immunofluorescence demonstrates that endogenous LRRK2 is expressed in the lens, brain, heart, spinal cord, and kidney (pronephros), which mirror the LRRK2 morphant phenotypes observed. LRRK2 knockdown results further in the concomitant upregulation of β-synuclein, PARK13, and SOD1 and causes β-synuclein aggregation in the diencephalon, midbrain, hindbrain, and postoptic commissure. LRRK2 knockdown causes mislocalization of the Na(+) /K(+) ATPase protein in the pronephric ducts, suggesting that the edema might be linked to renal malfunction and that LRRK2 might be associated with pronephric duct epithelial cell differentiation. Combined, our study shows that LRRK2 has multifaceted roles in zebrafish and that zebrafish represent a complementary model to further our understanding of this central protein. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rashed Abdullah
- Department of Biological Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, New York
| | - Indranil Basak
- Department of Biological Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, New York
| | - Solange Baez
- Department of Biological Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, New York
| | - Guido Alves
- The Norwegian Centre for Movement Disorders, Stavanger University Hospital, Stavanger, Norway
| | - Nathalia G Holtzman
- Department of Biology, Queens College and The Graduate Center, CUNY, Queens, New York
| | - Jan Petter Larsen
- The Norwegian Centre for Movement Disorders, Stavanger University Hospital, Stavanger, Norway
| | - Simon Geir Møller
- Department of Biological Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, New York.,The Norwegian Centre for Movement Disorders, Stavanger University Hospital, Stavanger, Norway
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12
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Imai Y, Kobayashi Y, Inoshita T, Meng H, Arano T, Uemura K, Asano T, Yoshimi K, Zhang CL, Matsumoto G, Ohtsuka T, Kageyama R, Kiyonari H, Shioi G, Nukina N, Hattori N, Takahashi R. The Parkinson's Disease-Associated Protein Kinase LRRK2 Modulates Notch Signaling through the Endosomal Pathway. PLoS Genet 2015; 11:e1005503. [PMID: 26355680 PMCID: PMC4565672 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a key molecule in the pathogenesis of familial and idiopathic Parkinson’s disease (PD). We have identified two novel LRRK2-associated proteins, a HECT-type ubiquitin ligase, HERC2, and an adaptor-like protein with six repeated Neuralized domains, NEURL4. LRRK2 binds to NEURL4 and HERC2 via the LRRK2 Ras of complex proteins (ROC) domain and NEURL4, respectively. HERC2 and NEURL4 link LRRK2 to the cellular vesicle transport pathway and Notch signaling, through which the LRRK2 complex promotes the recycling of the Notch ligand Delta-like 1 (Dll1)/Delta (Dl) through the modulation of endosomal trafficking. This process negatively regulates Notch signaling through cis-inhibition by stabilizing Dll1/Dl, which accelerates neural stem cell differentiation and modulates the function and survival of differentiated dopaminergic neurons. These effects are strengthened by the R1441G ROC domain-mutant of LRRK2. These findings suggest that the alteration of Notch signaling in mature neurons is a component of PD etiology linked to LRRK2. LRRK2 is linked to autosomal dominant late-onset Parkinson’s disease, suggesting that LRRK2 gain-of-function mutations lead to age-dependent degeneration of the midbrain dopaminergic neurons. In this study, we describe two novel LRRK2-associated proteins HERC2 and NEURL4, which are a ubiquitin ligase and an adaptor-like protein, respectively. HERC2 and NEURL4 direct LRRK2 to Notch signaling pathway, in which the LRRK2-NEURL4-HERC2 complex promotes the recycling of the Notch ligand Delta-like 1 (Dll1)/Delta (Dl) through the modulation of endosomal trafficking. As a result, the amounts of Dll1/D1 on the plasma membrane are increased, which affects negatively Notch signaling through cis-inhibition. The effect is enhanced by a Parkinson’s-disease associated mutation of LRRK2. Inhibition of Notch signaling in adult dopaminergic neurons impairs its functions and survival. These findings indicate a possible link between Notch pathway and Parkinson’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzuru Imai
- Department of Research for Parkinson's Disease, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail: (YI); (NH); (RT)
| | - Yoshito Kobayashi
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- CREST (Core Research for Evolutionary Science and Technology), Japan Science and Technology Agency, Saitama, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Inoshita
- Department of Research for Parkinson's Disease, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hongrui Meng
- Research Institute for Diseases of Old Age, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Taku Arano
- Department of Research for Parkinson's Disease, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kengo Uemura
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Takeshi Asano
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kenji Yoshimi
- Department of Neurophysiology, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chang-Liang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- CREST (Core Research for Evolutionary Science and Technology), Japan Science and Technology Agency, Saitama, Japan
| | - Gen Matsumoto
- Department of Neuroscience for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Ohtsuka
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ryoichiro Kageyama
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kiyonari
- Laboratory for Animal Resources and Genetic Engineering, RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, Kobe, Japan
| | - Go Shioi
- Laboratory for Animal Resources and Genetic Engineering, RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, Kobe, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Nukina
- Department of Neuroscience for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nobutaka Hattori
- Department of Research for Parkinson's Disease, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- CREST (Core Research for Evolutionary Science and Technology), Japan Science and Technology Agency, Saitama, Japan
- Research Institute for Diseases of Old Age, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Neuroscience for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail: (YI); (NH); (RT)
| | - Ryosuke Takahashi
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- CREST (Core Research for Evolutionary Science and Technology), Japan Science and Technology Agency, Saitama, Japan
- * E-mail: (YI); (NH); (RT)
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Dokter M, von Bohlen und Halbach O. Neurogenesis within the adult hippocampus under physiological conditions and in depression. Neural Regen Res 2015; 7:552-9. [PMID: 25745444 PMCID: PMC4349005 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2012.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2011] [Accepted: 02/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult neurogenesis can only be observed in some specific brain regions. One of these areas is the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation. The progenitor cells located in the subgranular layer of the dentate gyrus proliferate, differentiate, and give rise to young neurons that can become integrated into existing neuronal circuits. Under physiological conditions, hippocampal neurogenesis is linked to hippocampal-dependent learning, whereas deficits in adult hippocampal neurogenesis have been shown to correlate with disturbances in spatial learning and memory. This review summarizes the phenomenon of adult hippocampal neurogenesis and the use of suitable markers for the investigation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis. In addition, we focused on the disturbances in neurogenesis that can be seen in depression. Interestingly, several antidepressants have been found to be capable of increasing the rate of hippocampal neurogenesis. Based on that, it can be speculated that factors, which directly or indirectly increase the rate of hippocampal neurogenesis, may be helpful in the treatment of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Dokter
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ernst Moritz Arndt University of Greifswald, Germany
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14
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Manzoni C, Denny P, Lovering RC, Lewis PA. Computational analysis of the LRRK2 interactome. PeerJ 2015; 3:e778. [PMID: 25737818 PMCID: PMC4338795 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
LRRK2 was identified in 2004 as the causative protein product of the Parkinson’s disease locus designated PARK8. In the decade since then, genetic studies have revealed at least 6 dominant mutations in LRRK2 linked to Parkinson’s disease, alongside one associated with cancer. It is now well established that coding changes in LRRK2 are one of the most common causes of Parkinson’s. Genome-wide association studies (GWAs) have, more recently, reported single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) around the LRRK2 locus to be associated with risk of developing sporadic Parkinson’s disease and inflammatory bowel disorder. The functional research that has followed these genetic breakthroughs has generated an extensive literature regarding LRRK2 pathophysiology; however, there is still no consensus as to the biological function of LRRK2. To provide insight into the aspects of cell biology that are consistently related to LRRK2 activity, we analysed the plethora of candidate LRRK2 interactors available through the BioGRID and IntAct data repositories. We then performed GO terms enrichment for the LRRK2 interactome. We found that, in two different enrichment portals, the LRRK2 interactome was associated with terms referring to transport, cellular organization, vesicles and the cytoskeleton. We also verified that 21 of the LRRK2 interactors are genetically linked to risk for Parkinson’s disease or inflammatory bowel disorder. The implications of these findings are discussed, with particular regard to potential novel areas of investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Manzoni
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading , Whiteknights, Reading , UK ; Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London , Queen Square, London , UK
| | - Paul Denny
- Institute of Cardiovascular Science, University College London , London , UK
| | - Ruth C Lovering
- Institute of Cardiovascular Science, University College London , London , UK
| | - Patrick A Lewis
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading , Whiteknights, Reading , UK ; Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London , Queen Square, London , UK ; Centre for Integrated Neuroscience and Neurodynamics, University of Reading , Whiteknights, Reading , UK
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15
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Le Grand JN, Gonzalez-Cano L, Pavlou MA, Schwamborn JC. Neural stem cells in Parkinson's disease: a role for neurogenesis defects in onset and progression. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015; 72:773-97. [PMID: 25403878 PMCID: PMC11113294 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-014-1774-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Revised: 10/09/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, leading to a variety of motor and non-motor symptoms. Interestingly, non-motor symptoms often appear a decade or more before the first signs of motor symptoms. Some of these non-motor symptoms are remarkably similar to those observed in cases of impaired neurogenesis and several PD-related genes have been shown to play a role in embryonic or adult neurogenesis. Indeed, animal models deficient in Nurr1, Pitx3, SNCA and PINK1 display deregulated embryonic neurogenesis and LRRK2 and VPS35 have been implicated in neuronal development-related processes such as Wnt/β-catenin signaling and neurite outgrowth. Moreover, adult neurogenesis is affected in both PD patients and PD animal models and is regulated by dopamine and dopaminergic (DA) receptors, by chronic neuroinflammation, such as that observed in PD, and by differential expression of wild-type or mutant forms of PD-related genes. Indeed, an increasing number of in vivo studies demonstrate a role for SNCA and LRRK2 in adult neurogenesis and in the generation and maintenance of DA neurons. Finally, the roles of PD-related genes, SNCA, LRRK2, VPS35, Parkin, PINK1 and DJ-1 have been studied in NSCs, progenitor cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, demonstrating a role for some of these genes in stem/progenitor cell proliferation and maintenance. Together, these studies strongly suggest a link between deregulated neurogenesis and the onset and progression of PD and present strong evidence that, in addition to a neurodegenerative disorder, PD can also be regarded as a developmental disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaclyn Nicole Le Grand
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Laura Gonzalez-Cano
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Maria Angeliki Pavlou
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Jens C. Schwamborn
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
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16
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Berwick DC, Harvey K. LRRK2: an éminence grise of Wnt-mediated neurogenesis? Front Cell Neurosci 2013; 7:82. [PMID: 23754980 PMCID: PMC3668263 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2013.00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The importance of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) to mature neurons is well-established, since mutations in PARK8, the gene encoding LRRK2, are the most common known cause of Parkinson’s disease. Nonetheless, despite the LRRK2 knockout mouse having no overt neurodevelopmental defect, numerous lines of in vitro data point toward a central role for this protein in neurogenesis. Roles for LRRK2 have been described in many key processes, including neurite outgrowth and the regulation of microtubule dynamics. Moreover, LRRK2 has been implicated in cell cycle control, suggesting additional roles in neurogenesis that precede terminal differentiation. However, we contend that the suggested function of LRRK2 as a scaffolding protein at the heart of numerous Wnt signaling cascades provides the most tantalizing link to neurogenesis in the developing brain. Numerous lines of evidence show a critical requirement for multiple Wnt pathways in the development of certain brain regions, not least the dopaminergic neurons of the ventral mid-brain. In conclusion, these observations indicate a function of LRRK2 as a subtle yet critical mediator of the action of Wnt ligands on developing neurons. We suggest that LRRK2 loss- or gain-of-function are likely modifiers of developmental phenotypes seen in animal models of Wnt signaling deregulation, a hypothesis that can be tested by cross-breeding relevant genetically modified experimental strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Berwick
- Department of Pharmacology, University College London School of Pharmacy, University College London London, UK
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Bahnassawy L, Nicklas S, Palm T, Menzl I, Birzele F, Gillardon F, Schwamborn JC. The parkinson's disease-associated LRRK2 mutation R1441G inhibits neuronal differentiation of neural stem cells. Stem Cells Dev 2013; 22:2487-96. [PMID: 23600457 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2013.0163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene cause familial as well as sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD) that is characterized by an age-dependent degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. LRRK2 is strongly expressed in neural stem cells (NSCs), but still the exact molecular function of LRRK2 in these cells remains unknown. By performing a systemic analysis of the gene expression profile of LRRK2-deficient NSCs, we found that the expression of several PD-associated genes, such as oxidation and reduction in mitochondria, are deregulated on LRRK2 absence. Our data, indeed, indicate that LRRK2 regulates the level of cellular oxidative stress and thereby influences the survival of NSCs. Furthermore, the lack of LRRK2 leads to an up-regulation of neuronal differentiation-inducing processes, including the Let-7a pathway. On the other hand, the constitutive mutant of LRRK2(R1441G), known to cause PD, leads to down-regulation of the same pathway. In agreement with the function of Let-7a during neuronal differentiation, LRRK2-deficient NSCs differentiate faster than wild-type cells, while LRRK2(R1441G)-expressing NSCs show impaired neuronal differentiation. These results might help better characterize the molecular mechanisms underlying the role of LRRK2 in NSCs and would further improve potential cell-replacement strategies as well as drug discovery approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lamia'a Bahnassawy
- Stem Cell Biology and Regeneration Group, ZMBE, Institute of Cell Biology, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Münster, Germany
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Expression analysis of Lrrk1, Lrrk2 and Lrrk2 splice variants in mice. PLoS One 2013; 8:e63778. [PMID: 23675505 PMCID: PMC3651128 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 04/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Missense mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2) are linked to autosomal dominant forms of Parkinson's disease (PD). In order to get insights into the physiological role of Lrrk2, we examined the distribution of Lrrk2 mRNA and different splice variants in the developing murine embryo and the adult brain of Mus musculus. To analyse if the Lrrk2-paralog, Lrrk1, may have redundant functions in PD-development, we also compared Lrrk1 and Lrrk2 expression in the same tissues. Using radioactive in situ hybridization, we found ubiquitous expression of both genes at low level from embryonic stage E9.5 onward, which progressively increased up until birth. The developing central nervous system (CNS) displayed no prominent Lrrk2 mRNA signals at these time-points. However, in the entire postnatal brain Lrrk2 became detectable, showing strongest level in the striatum and the cortex of adult mice; Lrrk1 was only detectable in the mitral cell layer of the olfactory bulb. Thus, due to the non-overlapping expression patterns, a redundant function of Lrrk2 and Lrrk1 in the pathogenesis of PD seems to be unlikely. Quantification of Lrrk2 mRNA and protein level in several brain regions by real-time PCR and Western blot verified the striatum and cortex as hotspots of postnatal Lrrk2 expression. Strong expression of Lrrk2 is mainly found in neurons, specifically in the dopamine receptor 1 (DRD1a) and 2 (DRD2)-positive subpopulations of the striatal medium spiny neurons. Finally, we identified 2 new splice-variants of Lrrk2 in RNA-samples from various adult brain regions and organs: a variant with a skipped exon 5 and a truncated variant terminating in an alternative exon 42a. In order to identify the origin of these two splice variants, we also analysed primary neural cultures independently and found cell-specific expression patterns for these variants in microglia and astrocytes.
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Herzig MC, Kolly C, Persohn E, Theil D, Schweizer T, Hafner T, Stemmelen C, Troxler TJ, Schmid P, Danner S, Schnell CR, Mueller M, Kinzel B, Grevot A, Bolognani F, Stirn M, Kuhn RR, Kaupmann K, van der Putten PH, Rovelli G, Shimshek DR. LRRK2 protein levels are determined by kinase function and are crucial for kidney and lung homeostasis in mice. Hum Mol Genet 2011; 20:4209-23. [PMID: 21828077 PMCID: PMC3188995 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddr348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause late-onset Parkinson's disease (PD), but the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and the normal function of this large multidomain protein remain speculative. To address the role of this protein in vivo, we generated three different LRRK2 mutant mouse lines. Mice completely lacking the LRRK2 protein (knock-out, KO) showed an early-onset (age 6 weeks) marked increase in number and size of secondary lysosomes in kidney proximal tubule cells and lamellar bodies in lung type II cells. Mice expressing a LRRK2 kinase-dead (KD) mutant from the endogenous locus displayed similar early-onset pathophysiological changes in kidney but not lung. KD mutants had dramatically reduced full-length LRRK2 protein levels in the kidney and this genetic effect was mimicked pharmacologically in wild-type mice treated with a LRRK2-selective kinase inhibitor. Knock-in (KI) mice expressing the G2019S PD-associated mutation that increases LRRK2 kinase activity showed none of the LRRK2 protein level and histopathological changes observed in KD and KO mice. The autophagy marker LC3 remained unchanged but kidney mTOR and TCS2 protein levels decreased in KD and increased in KO and KI mice. Unexpectedly, KO and KI mice suffered from diastolic hypertension opposed to normal blood pressure in KD mice. Our findings demonstrate a role for LRRK2 in kidney and lung physiology and further show that LRRK2 kinase function affects LRRK2 protein steady-state levels thereby altering putative scaffold/GTPase activity. These novel aspects of peripheral LRRK2 biology critically impact ongoing attempts to develop LRRK2 selective kinase inhibitors as therapeutics for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin C Herzig
- Department of Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
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de Yñigo-Mojado L, Martín-Ruíz I, Sutherland JD. Efficient allele-specific targeting of LRRK2 R1441 mutations mediated by RNAi. PLoS One 2011; 6:e21352. [PMID: 21712955 PMCID: PMC3119704 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2010] [Accepted: 05/31/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Since RNA interference (RNAi) has the potential to discriminate between single nucleotide changes, there is growing interest in the use of RNAi as a promising therapeutical approach to target dominant disease-associated alleles. Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene have been linked to dominantly inherited Parkinson's disease (PD). We focused on three LRRK2 mutations (R1441G/C and the more prevalent G2109S) hoping to identify shRNAs that would both recognize and efficiently silence the mutated alleles preferentially over the wild-type alleles. Using a luciferase-based reporter system, we identified shRNAs that were able to specifically target the R1441G and R1441C alleles with 80% silencing efficiency. The same shRNAs were able to silence specifically mRNAs encoding either partial or full-length mutant LRRK2 fusion proteins, while having a minimal effect on endogenous wild-type LRRK2 expression when transfected in 293FT cells. Shifting of the mutant recognition site (MRS) from position 11 to other sites (4 and 16, within the 19-mer window of our shRNA design) reduced specificity and overall silencing efficiency. Developing an allele-specific RNAi of G2019S was problematic. Placement of the MRS at position 10 resulted in efficient silencing of reporters (75–80%), but failed to discriminate between mutant and wild-type alleles. Shifting of the MRS to positions 4, 5, 15, 16 increased the specificity of the shRNAs, but reduced the overall silencing efficiency. Consistent with previous reports, these data confirm that MRS placement influences both allele-specificity and silencing strength of shRNAs, while further modification to hairpin design or MRS position may lead to the development of effective G2019S shRNAs. In summary, the effective shRNA against LRRK2 R1441 alleles described herein suggests that RNAi-based therapy of inherited Parkinson's disease is a viable approach towards developing effective therapeutic interventions for this serious neurodegenerative disease.
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Schulz C, Paus M, Frey K, Schmid R, Kohl Z, Mennerich D, Winkler J, Gillardon F. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 modulates retinoic acid-induced neuronal differentiation of murine embryonic stem cells. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20820. [PMID: 21695257 PMCID: PMC3111438 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2010] [Accepted: 05/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Dominant mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are the most prevalent cause of Parkinson's disease, however, little is known about the biological function of LRRK2 protein. LRRK2 is expressed in neural precursor cells suggesting a role in neurodevelopment. Methodology/Principal Findings In the present study, differential gene expression profiling revealed a faster silencing of pluripotency-associated genes, like Nanog, Oct4, and Lin28, during retinoic acid-induced neuronal differentiation of LRRK2-deficient mouse embryonic stem cells compared to wildtype cultures. By contrast, expression of neurotransmitter receptors and neurotransmitter release was increased in LRRK2+/− cultures indicating that LRRK2 promotes neuronal differentiation. Consistently, the number of neural progenitor cells was higher in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of adult LRRK2-deficient mice. Alterations in phosphorylation of the putative LRRK2 substrates, translation initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 and moesin, do not appear to be involved in altered differentiation, rather there is indirect evidence that a regulatory signaling network comprising retinoic acid receptors, let-7 miRNA and downstream target genes/mRNAs may be affected in LRRK2-deficient stem cells in culture. Conclusion/Significance Parkinson's disease-linked LRRK2 mutations that associated with enhanced kinase activity may affect retinoic acid receptor signaling during neurodevelopment and/or neuronal maintenance as has been shown in other mouse models of chronic neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathrin Schulz
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co KG, CNS Research, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Marie Paus
- Division of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Katharina Frey
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co KG, CNS Research, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Ramona Schmid
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co KG, CNS Research, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Zacharias Kohl
- Division of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Detlev Mennerich
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co KG, CNS Research, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Jürgen Winkler
- Division of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Frank Gillardon
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co KG, CNS Research, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Kicka S, Shen Z, Annesley SJ, Fisher PR, Lee S, Briggs S, Firtel RA. The LRRK2-related Roco kinase Roco2 is regulated by Rab1A and controls the actin cytoskeleton. Mol Biol Cell 2011; 22:2198-211. [PMID: 21551065 PMCID: PMC3128523 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e10-12-0937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We identify a new pathway that is required for proper pseudopod formation. We show that Roco2, a leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2)-related Roco kinase, is activated in response to chemoattractant stimulation and helps mediate cell polarization and chemotaxis by regulating cortical F-actin polymerization and pseudopod extension in a pathway that requires Rab1A. We found that Roco2 binds the small GTPase Rab1A as well as the F-actin cross-linking protein filamin (actin-binding protein 120, abp120) in vivo. We show that active Rab1A (Rab1A-GTP) is required for and regulates Roco2 kinase activity in vivo and that filamin lies downstream from Roco2 and controls pseudopod extension during chemotaxis and random cell motility. Therefore our study uncovered a new signaling pathway that involves Rab1A and controls the actin cytoskeleton and pseudopod extension, and thereby, cell polarity and motility. These findings also may have implications in the regulation of other Roco kinases, including possibly LRRK2, in metazoans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Kicka
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0380, USA
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