ATP citrate lyase 1 (acl1) gene-based loop-mediated amplification assay for the detection of the Fusarium tricinctum species complex in pure cultures and in cereal samples

Genetic Diversity and Pathogenicity of the Fusarium Species Complex on Soybean in Serbia

Using morphological and cultural characteristics for identification, 36 Fusarium isolates were recovered from diseased roots, stems, and seeds of soybean from several localities throughout Vojvodina Province, Serbia. Based on molecular characterization, 12 Fusarium species were identified: F. acuminatum, F. avenaceum, F. commune, F. equiseti, F. graminearum, F. incarnatum, F. oxysporum, F. proliferatum, F. solani, F. sporotrichioides, F. subglutinans, and F. tricinctum. The elongation factor 1-α-based phylogeny grouped the isolates into 12 well-supported clades, but polymorphisms among sequences in some clades suggested the use of the species complex concept: (i) F. incarnatum-equiseti species complex (FIESC)-F. incarnatum and F. equiseti; (ii) F. oxysporum species complex (FOSC)-F. oxysporum; (iii) F. solani species complex (FSSC)-F. solani; and (iv) F. acuminatum/F. avenaceum/F. tricinctum species complex (FAATSC)-F. acuminatum, F. avenaceum, and F. tricinctum. Pathogenicity tests showed that the most aggressive species causing soybean seed rot were F. sporotrichioides, F. graminearum, FIESC, and F. avenaceum. Furthermore, F. subglutinans, FSSC, and F. proliferatum showed a high percentage of pathogenicity on soybean seeds (80 to 100%), whereas variability in pathogenicity occurred within isolates of F. tricinctum. FOSC, F. commune, and F. acuminatum had the lowest pathogenicity. To our knowledge, this is the first study of the characterization of Fusarium species on soybean in Serbia. This study provides valuable information about the composition of Fusarium species and pathogenicity that will be used in further research on soybean resistance to Fusarium-based diseases.

Different diagnostic approaches for the characterization of the fungal community and Fusarium species complex composition of Italian durum wheat grain and correlation with secondary metabolite accumulation

BACKGROUND

The evolution of the fungal communities associated with durum wheat was assessed using different diagnostic approaches. Durum wheat grain samples were collected in three different Italian cultivation macro-areas (north, center and south). Fungal isolation was realized by potato dextrose agar (PDA) and by deep-freezing blotter (DFB). Identification of Fusarium isolates obtained from PDA was achieved by partial tef1α sequencing (PDA + tef1α), while those obtained from DFB were identified from their morphological characteristics (DFB + mc). The fungal biomass of eight Fusarium species was quantified in grains by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Fungal secondary metabolites were analyzed in grains by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Correlations between Fusarium detection techniques (PDA + tef1α; DFB + mc and qPCR) and mycotoxins in grains were assessed.

RESULTS

Alternaria and Fusarium showed the highest incidence among the fungal genera developed from grains. Within the Fusarium community, PDA + tef1α highlighted that F. avenaceum and F. graminearum were the most represented members, while, DFB + mc detected a high presence of F. proliferatum. Alternaria and Fusarium mycotoxins, principally enniatins, were particularly present in the grain harvested in central Italy. Deoxynivalenol was mainly detected in northern-central Italy.

CONCLUSIONS

The adoption of the different diagnostic techniques of Fusarium detection highlighted that, for some species, qPCR was the best method of predicting their mycotoxin contamination in grains. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Development and Application of Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) Assays for Rapid Diagnosis of the Bat White-Nose Disease Fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans

Pseudogymnoascus destructans (= Geomyces destructans) is a psychrophilic filamentous fungus that causes White-Nose Disease (WND; the disease associated with White-Nose Syndrome, WNS) in hibernating bats. The disease has caused considerable reductions in bat populations in the USA and Canada since 2006. Identification and detection of the pathogen in pure cultures and environmental samples is routinely based on qPCR or PCR after DNA isolation and purification. Rapid and specific direct detection of the fungus in the field would strongly improve prompt surveillance, and support control measures. Based on the genes coding for ATP citrate lyase1 (acl1) and the 28S-18S ribosomal RNA intergenic spacer (IGS) in P. destructans, two independent LAMP assays were developed for the rapid and sensitive diagnosis of the fungus. Both assays could discriminate P. destructans from 159 tested species of filamentous fungi and yeasts. Sensitivity of the assays was 2.1 picogram per reaction (pg/rxn) and 21 femtogram per reaction (fg/rxn) for the acl1 and IGS based assays, respectively. Moreover, both assays also work with spores and mycelia of P. destructans that are directly added to the master mix without prior DNA extraction. For field-diagnostics, we developed and tested a field-applicable version of the IGS-based LAMP assay. Lastly, we also developed a protocol for preparation of fungal spores and mycelia from swabs and tape liftings of contaminated surfaces or infected bats. This protocol in combination with the highly sensitive IGS-based LAMP-assay enabled sensitive detection of P. destructans from various sources.

Distribution, pathogenicity and disease control of Fusarium tricinctum

Plant pathogenic fungi such as Fusarium tricinctum cause various plant diseases worldwide, especially in temperate regions. In cereals, F. tricinctum is one of the most common species causing Fusarium head blight (FHB) and root rot. Infection with F. tricinctum results in high yield losses and reduction in quality, mainly due to mycotoxin contamination of grain. Mycotoxins produced by F. tricinctum, such as enniatins (ENs) and moniliformin (MON), which are the most studied mycotoxins, have been reported to have multiple toxic effects on humans and animals. Although chemical control of Fusarium infection has been applied to grains, it is not always effective in controlling disease or reducing the level of mycotoxins in wheat grains. To the contrary, chemical control may significantly increase infection of F. tricinctum in fungicide-treated plots after treatment. Our studies show that the bacterium Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, has good control effects against F. tricinctum. Therefore, its use as a biological control agent against various plant pathogens may be an effective strategy to control the spread of Fusarium pathogens. Here, we conduct a review of the literature involving this plant pathogen, its diversity, virulence, and methods to control.

Phylogenetic Diversity and Mycotoxin Potential of Emergent Phytopathogens Within the Fusarium tricinctum Species Complex

Recent studies on multiple continents indicate members of the Fusarium tricinctum species complex (FTSC) are emerging as prevalent pathogens of small-grain cereals, pulses, and other economically important crops. These understudied fusaria produce structurally diverse mycotoxins, among which enniatins (ENNs) and moniliformin (MON) are the most frequent and of greatest concern to food and feed safety. Herein a large survey of fusaria in the Fusarium Research Center and Agricultural Research Service culture collections was undertaken to assess species diversity and mycotoxin potential within the FTSC. A 151-strain collection originating from diverse hosts and substrates from different agroclimatic regions throughout the world was selected from 460 FTSC strains to represent the breadth of FTSC phylogenetic diversity. Evolutionary relationships inferred from a five-locus dataset, using maximum likelihood and parsimony, resolved the 151 strains as 24 phylogenetically distinct species, including nine that are new to science. Of the five genes analyzed, nearly full-length phosphate permease sequences contained the most phylogenetically informative characters, establishing its suitability for species-level phylogenetics within the FTSC. Fifteen of the species produced ENNs, MON, the sphingosine analog 2-amino-14,16-dimethyloctadecan-3-ol (AOD), and the toxic pigment aurofusarin (AUR) on a cracked corn kernel substrate. Interestingly, the five earliest diverging species in the FTSC phylogeny (i.e., F. iranicum, F. flocciferum, F. torulosum, and Fusarium spp. FTSC 8 and 24) failed to produce AOD and MON, but synthesized ENNs and/or AUR. Moreover, our reassessment of nine published phylogenetic studies on the FTSC identified 11 additional novel taxa, suggesting this complex comprises at least 36 species.

Development of Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Assay for Rapid Detection and Analysis of the Root-Knot Nematode Meloidogyne hapla in Soil

Soil analysis is crucial for estimating the risk of crop damage by the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne hapla. Here, we developed an analysis assay based on Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP). The LAMP primers were verified for specificity against 10 different nematode species. A manual soil DNA extraction, referred to as SKMM, was developed and compared with a FastDNA kit followed by DNA purification. DNA was extracted with both methods from artificially inoculated soils as well as from naturally infested soil collected from farm fields. The primers exclusively amplified DNA from M. hapla with both colorimetric and real-time LAMP. The detection limit was 193 gene copies and 0.0016 juveniles (12 pg µL−1) per reaction. DNA concentrations and purity (A260/A230) were significantly higher using the SKMM procedure compared with the kit. From the field samples collected in 2019, DNA was amplified from 16% of samples extracted with SKMM and from 11% of samples using the kit. Occurrence of M. hapla DNA was confirmed in soil samples from two out of six field soils in 2020 using both real-time LAMP and qPCR. In conclusion, the developed real-time LAMP is a fast and specific assay for detection and quantification of M. hapla DNA in soil.

LAMP Detection and Identification of the Blackleg Pathogen Leptosphaeria biglobosa 'brassicae'

Blackleg of oilseed rape is a damaging invasive disease caused by the species complex Leptosphaeria maculans (Lm)/L. biglobosa (Lb), which is composed of at least two and seven phylogenetic subclades, respectively. Generally, Lm is more virulent than Lb, but under certain conditions, Lb can cause a significant yield loss in oilseed rape. Lb 'brassicae' (Lbb) has been found to be the causal agent for blackleg of oilseed rape in China, whereas Lm and Lb 'canadensis' (Lbc) were frequently detected in imported seeds of oilseed rape, posing a risk of spread into China. To monitor the blackleg-pathogen populations, a diagnostic tool based on loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) was developed using a 615-bp-long DNA sequence from Lbb that was derived from a randomly amplified polymorphic DNA assay. The LAMP was optimized for temperature and time, and tested for specificity and sensitivity using the DNA extracted from Lbb, Lbc, Lm, and 10 other fungi. The results showed that the optimal temperature and time were 65°C and 40 min, respectively. The LAMP primer set was specific to Lbb and highly sensitive as it detected the Lbb DNA as low as 132 fg per reaction. The LAMP assay was validated using the DNA extracted from mycelia and conidia of a well-characterized Lbb isolate, and its utility was evaluated using the DNA extracted from leaves, stems, pods, and seeds of oilseed rape. The LAMP assay developed herein will help for monitoring populations of the blackleg pathogens in China and in developing strategies for management of the blackleg disease.

Rapid and selective detection of macrocyclic trichothecene producing Stachybotrys chartarum strains by loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)

Cytotoxic macrocyclic trichothecenes such as satratoxins are produced by chemotype S strains of Stachybotrys chartarum. Diseases such as stachybotryotoxicosis in animals and the sick building syndrome as a multifactorial disease complex in humans have been associated with this mold and its toxins. Less toxic non-chemotype S strains of S. chartarum are morphologically indistinguishable from chemotype S strains, which results in uncertainties in hazard characterization of isolates. To selectively identify macrocyclic trichothecene producing S. chartarum isolates, a set of sat14 gene-specific primers was designed and applied in a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay using neutral red for visual signal detection. The assay was highly specific for S. chartarum strains of the macrocyclic trichothecene producing chemotype and showed no cross-reaction with non-macrocyclic trichothecene producing S. chartarum strains or 152 strains of 131 other fungal species. The assay's detection limit was 0.635 pg/rxn (picogram per reaction) with a reaction time of 60 min. Its high specificity and sensitivity as well as the cost-saving properties make the new assay an interesting and powerful diagnostic tool for easy and rapid testing.

Species diversity and mycotoxin production by members of the Fusarium tricinctum species complex associated with Fusarium head blight of wheat and barley in Italy

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a global cereal disease caused by a complex of Fusarium species. In Europe, the main species responsible for FHB are F. graminearum, F. culmorum and F. poae. However, members of the F. tricinctum species complex (FTSC) have become increasingly important. FTSC fusaria can synthesize mycotoxins such as moniliformin (MON), enniatins (ENNs) and several other biologically active secondary metabolites that could compromise food quality. In this study, FTSC isolates primarily from Italian durum wheat and barley, together with individual strains from four non-graminaceous hosts, were collected to assess their genetic diversity and determine their potential to produce mycotoxins in vitro on rice cultures. A multilocus DNA sequence dataset (TEF1, RPB1 and RPB2) was constructed for 117 isolates from Italy and 6 from Iran to evaluate FTSC species diversity and their evolutionary relationships. Phylogenetic analyses revealed wide genetic diversity among Italian FTSC isolates. Among previously described FTSC species, F. avenaceum (FTSC 4) was the most common species in Italy (56/117 = 47.9%) while F. tricinctum (FTSC 3), and F. acuminatum (FTSC 2) accounted for 11.1% (13/117) and the 8.5% (10/117), respectively. The second most detected species was a new and unnamed Fusarium sp. (FTSC 12; 32/117 = 19%) resolved as the sister group of F. tricinctum. Collectively, these four phylospecies accounted for 111/117 = 94.9% of the Italian FTSC collection. However, we identified five other FTSC species at low frequencies, including F. iranicum (FTSC 6) and three newly discovered species (Fusarium spp. FTSC 13, 14, 15). Of the 59 FTSC isolates tested for mycotoxin production on rice cultures, 54 and 55 strains, respectively, were able to produce detectable levels of ENNs and MON. In addition, we confirmed that the ability to produce bioactive secondary metabolites such as chlamydosporol, acuminatopyrone, longiborneol, fungerin and butanolide is widespread across the FTSC.

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification: Development, validation and application of simple and rapid assays for quantitative detection of species of Arcobacteraceae family- and species-specific Aliarcobacter faecis and Aliarcobacter lanthieri

Aim

The family Arcobacteraceae formerly genus Arcobacter has recently been reclassified into six genera. Among nine species of the genus Aliarcobacter, Aliarcobacter faecis and Aliarcobacter lanthieri have been identified as emerging pathogens potentially cause health risks to humans and animals. This study was designed to develop/optimize, validate and apply Arcobacteraceae family‐ and two species‐specific (A. faecis and A. lanthieri) loop‐mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays to rapidly detect and quantify total number of cells in various environmental niches.

Methods and Results

Three sets of LAMP primers were designed from conserved and variable regions of 16S rRNA (family‐specific) and gyrB (species‐specific) genes. Optimized Arcobacteraceae family‐specific LAMP assay correctly amplified and detected 24 species, whereas species‐specific LAMP assays detected A. faecis and A. lanthieri reference strains as well as 91 pure and mixed culture isolates recovered from aquatic and faecal sources. The specificity of LAMP amplification of A. faecis and A. lanthieri was further confirmed by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Assay sensitivities were tested using variable DNA concentrations extracted from simulated target species cells in an autoclaved agricultural water sample by achieving a minimum detection limit of 10 cells mL⁻¹ (10 fg). Direct DNA‐based quantitative detection, from agricultural surface water, identified A. faecis (17%) and A. lanthieri (1%) at a low frequency compared to family‐level (93%) with the concentration ranging from 2·1 × 10¹ to 2·2 × 10⁵ cells 100 mL⁻¹.

Conclusions

Overall, these three DNA‐based rapid and cost‐effective novel LAMP assays are sensitive and can be completed in less than 40 min. They have potential for on‐site quantitative detection of species of family Arcobacteraceae, A. faecis and A. lanthieri in food, environmental and clinical matrices.

Significance and Impact of the Study

The newly developed LAMP assays are specific, sensitive, accurate with higher reproducibility that have potential to facilitate in a less equipped lab setting and can help in early quantitative detection and rate of prevalence in environmental niches. The assays can be adopted in the diagnostic labs and epidemiological studies.

Morphological and Molecular Variation Between Fusarium avenaceum, Fusarium arthrosporioides and Fusarium anguioides Strains

Fusarium avenaceum and closely related species are common fungi on various plants, cultivated in different climatic regions. The aim of this study was to determine the taxonomic affiliations of the F. avenaceum, Fusarium arthrosporioides, and Fusarium anguioides strains by using morphological, physiological and molecular-genetic approaches. Twenty-six single-spored morphologically identified strains, which were mainly from cereals, were investigated in order to find out, if they belong to a separate species. Pathogenicity of strains to wheat seedlings and ISSR (Inter Simple Sequence Repeats) fingerprint and beta-tubulin DNA sequence patterns were analyzed. According to phylogenetic analyses, the strains could be divided into two big groups consisting of mostly F. avenaceum or F. anguioides strains. F. arthrosporioides was not detected as a separate species by the sum of the characters. F. anguioides was characterized as a separate species, which could be identified by morphological and molecular data. High genetic diversity of the F. avenaceum and related species was revealed. One F. anguioides strain (rudbeckia, Vladivostok, Russia), had an identical beta-tubulin sequence with two previously sequenced strains of Fusarium tricinctum species complex, which were isolated from dicotyledonous plants in Asia.

Detection of Tilletia caries, Tilletia laevis and Tilletia controversa wheat grain contamination using loop-mediated isothermal DNA amplification (LAMP)

The study describes a novel diagnostic protocol based on a loop-mediated isothermal DNA amplification (LAMP) for identification of wheat grains infection by Tilletia laevis, Tilletia caries (common bunt) and Tilletia controversa (draft bunt). The presented data showed that the LAMP analysis is a simple, specific and rapid method that could be used for detection of Tilletia spp. in contaminated grain samples. The lowest DNA concentration required for the successful detection of Tilletia spp. strains were estimated to be 0.001 ng/μl. Simultaneously the detection limit for wheat grain contamination by T. caries and T. laevis teliospores was estimated at 20 μg per 100 g of grain. For T. controversa detection limit was lower and was approximately 20 mg of teliospores per 100 g of grain. The negative results of the LAMP reactions were achieved for the most common fungal species colonizing wheat grain like Fusarium spp., Alternaria sp., Cladosporium sp., Helminthosporium sp., and Penicillium sp.

LAMP-based group specific detection of aflatoxin producers within Aspergillus section Flavi in food raw materials, spices, and dried fruit using neutral red for visible-light signal detection

Aflatoxins can be produced by 21 species within sections Flavi (16 species), Ochraceorosei (2), and Nidulantes (3) of the fungal genus Aspergillus. They pose risks to human and animal health due to high toxicity and carcinogenicity. Detecting aflatoxin producers can help to assess toxicological risks associated with contaminated commodities. Species specific molecular assays (PCR and LAMP) are available for detection of major producers, but fail to detect species of minor importance. To enable rapid and sensitive detection of several aflatoxin producing species in a single analysis, a nor1 gene-specific LAMP assay was developed. Specificity testing showed that among 128 fungal species from 28 genera, 15 aflatoxigenic species in section Flavi were detected, including synonyms of A. flavus and A. parasiticus. No cross reactions were found with other tested species. The detection limit of the assay was 9.03pg of A. parasiticus genomic DNA per reaction. Visual detection of positive LAMP reactions under daylight conditions was facilitated using neutral red to allow unambiguous distinction between positive and negative assay results. Application of the assay to the detection of A. parasiticus conidia revealed a detection limit of 211 conidia per reaction after minimal sample preparation. The usefulness of the assay was demonstrated in the analysis of aflatoxinogenic species in samples of rice, nuts, raisins, dried figs, as well as powdered spices. Comparison of LAMP results with presence/absence of aflatoxins and aflatoxin producing fungi in 50 rice samples showed good correlation between these parameters. Our study suggests that the developed LAMP assay is a rapid, sensitive and user-friendly tool for surveillance and quality control in our food industry.

Comparison of DNA Microarray, Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) and Real-Time PCR with DNA Sequencing for Identification of Fusarium spp. Obtained from Patients with Hematologic Malignancies

The performance of three molecular biology techniques, i.e., DNA microarray, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), and real-time PCR were compared with DNA sequencing for properly identification of 20 isolates of Fusarium spp. obtained from blood stream as etiologic agent of invasive infections in patients with hematologic malignancies. DNA microarray, LAMP and real-time PCR identified 16 (80%) out of 20 samples as Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC) and four (20%) as Fusarium spp. The agreement among the techniques was 100%. LAMP exhibited 100% specificity, while DNA microarray, LAMP and real-time PCR showed 100% sensitivity. The three techniques had 100% agreement with DNA sequencing. Sixteen isolates were identified as FSSC by sequencing, being five Fusarium keratoplasticum, nine Fusarium petroliphilum and two Fusarium solani. On the other hand, sequencing identified four isolates as Fusarium non-solani species complex (FNSSC), being three isolates as Fusarium napiforme and one isolate as Fusarium oxysporum. Finally, LAMP proved to be faster and more accessible than DNA microarray and real-time PCR, since it does not require a thermocycler. Therefore, LAMP signalizes as emerging and promising methodology to be used in routine identification of Fusarium spp. among cases of invasive fungal infections.

Characterization of Fusarium Strains Recovered From Wheat With Symptoms of Head Blight in Kentucky

Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC) members cause Fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and small grains in the United States. The U.S. population is diverse and includes several genetically distinct local emergent subpopulations, some more aggressive and toxigenic than the majority population. Kentucky is a transition zone between the Mid-Atlantic and Midwestern wheat production areas. Sixty-eight Fusarium strains were isolated from symptomatic wheat heads from central and western Kentucky and southern Indiana in 2007. A multilocus genotyping assay and a variety of additional molecular markers, including some novel markers developed using the F. graminearum genome sequence, were used to characterize the pathogen population. Five of the isolates were identified as members of two non-FGSC species, F. acuminatum and F. cf. reticulatum, but they did not cause symptoms in greenhouse tests. All the FGSC isolates belonged to the 15-ADON chemotype of F. graminearum. Comparative genetic analysis using variable nuclear tandem repeat (VNTR) markers indicated that the population in Kentucky and Indiana belonged to the dominant North American population, with some diversification likely due to local evolution. Telomere and RFLP fingerprinting markers based on repetitive sequences revealed a high degree of genetic diversity within the population, with unique genotypes found at each location, and multiple genotypes isolated from the same head.

Current state and future perspectives of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)-based diagnosis of filamentous fungi and yeasts

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification is a rather novel method of enzymatic deoxyribonucleic acid amplification which can be applied for the diagnosis of viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Although firmly established in viral and bacterial diagnosis, the technology has only recently been applied to a noteworthy number of species in the filamentous fungi and yeasts. The current review gives an overview of the literature so far published on the topic by discussing the different groups of fungal organisms to which the method has been applied. Moreover, the method is described in detail as well as the different possibilities available for signal detection and quantification and sample preparation. Future perspective of loop-mediated isothermal amplification-based assays is discussed in the light of applicability for fungal diagnostics.

Identification of the Infection Route of a Fusarium Seed Pathogen into Nondormant Bromus tectorum Seeds

The genus Fusarium has a wide host range and causes many different forms of plant disease. These include seed rot and seedling blight diseases of cultivated plants. The diseases caused by Fusarium on wild plants are less well-known. In this study, we examined disease development caused by Fusarium sp. n on nondormant seeds of the important rangeland weed Bromus tectorum as part of broader studies of the phenomenon of stand failure or "die-off" in this annual grass. We previously isolated an undescribed species in the F. tricinctum species complex from die-off soils and showed that it is pathogenic on seeds. It can cause high mortality of nondormant B. tectorum seeds, especially under conditions of water stress, but rarely attacks dormant seeds. In this study, we used scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to investigate the mode of attack used by this pathogen. Nondormant B. tectorum seeds (i.e., florets containing caryopses) were inoculated with isolate Skull C1 macroconidia. Seeds were then exposed to water stress conditions (-1.5 MPa) for 7 days and then transferred to free water. Time lapse SEM photographs of healthy versus infected seeds revealed that hyphae under water stress conditions grew toward and culminated their attack at the abscission layer of the floret attachment scar. A prominent infection cushion, apparent macroscopically as a white tuft of mycelium at the radicle end of the seed, developed within 48 h after inoculation. Seeds that lacked an infection cushion completed germination upon transfer to free water, whereas seeds with an infection cushion were almost always killed. In addition, hyphae on seeds that did not initiate germination lacked directional growth and did not develop the infection cushion. This strongly suggests that the fungal attack is triggered by seed exudates released through the floret attachment scar at the initiation of germination. Images of cross sections of infected seeds showed that the fungal hyphae first penetrated the caryposis wall, then entered the embryo, and later ramified throughout the endosperm, completely destroying the seed.

Plant pathogen nanodiagnostic techniques: forthcoming changes?

Plant diseases are among the major factors limiting crop productivity. A first step towards managing a plant disease under greenhouse and field conditions is to correctly identify the pathogen. Current technologies, such as quantitative polymerase chain reaction (Q-PCR), require a relatively large amount of target tissue and rely on multiple assays to accurately identify distinct plant pathogens. The common disadvantage of the traditional diagnostic methods is that they are time consuming and lack high sensitivity. Consequently, developing low-cost methods to improve the accuracy and rapidity of plant pathogens diagnosis is needed. Nanotechnology, nano particles and quantum dots (QDs) have emerged as essential tools for fast detection of a particular biological marker with extreme accuracy. Biosensor, QDs, nanostructured platforms, nanoimaging and nanopore DNA sequencing tools have the potential to raise sensitivity, specificity and speed of the pathogen detection, facilitate high-throughput analysis, and to be used for high-quality monitoring and crop protection. Furthermore, nanodiagnostic kit equipment can easily and quickly detect potential serious plant pathogens, allowing experts to help farmers in the prevention of epidemic diseases. The current review deals with the application of nanotechnology for quicker, more cost-effective and precise diagnostic procedures of plant diseases. Such an accurate technology may help to design a proper integrated disease management system which may modify crop environments to adversely affect crop pathogens.

Real-time loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for group specific detection of important trichothecene producing Fusarium species in wheat

Trichothecene mycotoxins such as deoxynivaneol (DON), nivalenol (NIV) and T2-Toxin are produced by a variety of Fusarium spp. on cereals in the field and may be ingested by consumption of commodities and products made thereof. The toxins inhibit eukaryotic protein biosynthesis and may thus impair human and animal health. Aimed at rapid and sensitive detection of the most important trichothecene producing Fusarium spp. in a single analysis, a real-time duplex loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay was set up. Two sets of LAMP primers were designed independently to amplify a partial sequence of the tri6 gene in Fusarium (F.) graminearum and of the tri5 gene in Fusarium sporotrichioides, respectively. Each of the two sets detected a limited number of the established trichothecene producing Fusarium-species. However, combination of the two sets in one duplex assay enabled detection of F. graminearum, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium cerealis, F. sporotrichioides, Fusarium langsethiae and Fusarium poae in a group specific manner. No cross reactions were detected with purified DNA from 127 other fungal species or with cereal DNA. To demonstrate the usefulness of the assay, 100 wheat samples collected from all over the German state of Bavaria were analyzed for the trichothecene mycotoxin DON by HPLC and for the presence of trichothecene producers by the new real-time duplex LAMP assay in parallel analyses. The LAMP assay showed positive results for all samples with a DON concentration exceeding 163ppb. The major advantage of the duplex LAMP assay is that the presence of six of the major trichothecene producing Fusarium spp. can be detected in a rapid and user-friendly manner with only one single assay. To our knowledge this is the first report of the use of a multiplex LAMP assay for fungal organisms.

A novel and rapid loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for the specific detection of Verticillium dahliae

AIMS

In this study, a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay has been developed and evaluated for the rapid and sensitive detection of Verticillium dahliae Kleb., the causal agent of vascular wilts in many economically important crops.

METHODS AND RESULTS

LAMP primers were designed based on a previously described RAPD marker, and the LAMP assay was applied for direct detection of V. dahliae grown on medium and from soil samples without DNA purification steps (direct-LAMP). Thirty-two agricultural soil samples from various olive orchards were collected, and the presence of pathogen was detected by LAMP, direct-LAMP and nested-PCR methods. The LAMP methodology could successfully detect V. dahliae with high specificity, and cross-reaction was not observed with different pathogenic and nonpathogenic fungi and bacteria. The LAMP assay was capable of detecting a minimum of 500 and 50 fg of purified target DNA per reaction of V. dahliae ND and D pathotypes, respectively. In contrast, nested-PCR could only detect 5 pg reaction(-1) for both pathotypes. In artificially infested soil samples, the LAMP method detected 5 microsclerotia per gram of soil. Conversely, nested-PCR assay detected 50 microsclerotia g(-1) soil. The detection ratios of LAMP and direct-LAMP protocols were better (26 and 24 positive samples out of 32 agricultural soils analysed, respectively) than that obtained for nested-PCR method (22 positive results). Moreover, direct-LAMP yielded positive detection of V. dahliae in agricultural soil samples within 60-80 min.

CONCLUSIONS

The newly developed LAMP method was proved to be an effective, simple and rapid method to detect V. dahliae without the need for either expensive equipment or DNA purification.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY

This technique can be considered as an excellent standard alternative to plating and nested-PCR assays for the early, sensitive and low-cost detection of V. dahliae as well as other soilborne pathogens in the field.

Comparison of conventional PCR, multiplex PCR, and loop-mediated isothermal amplification assays for rapid detection of Arcobacter species

This study aimed to develop a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) method for the rapid detection of Arcobacter species. Specific primers targeting the 23S ribosomal RNA gene were used to detect Arcobacter butzleri, Arcobacter cryaerophilus, and Arcobacter skirrowii. The specificity of the LAMP primer set was assessed using DNA samples from a panel of Arcobacter and Campylobacter species, and the sensitivity was determined using serial dilutions of Arcobacter species cultures. LAMP showed a 10- to 1,000-fold-higher sensitivity than multiplex PCR, with a detection limit of 2 to 20 CFU per reaction in vitro. Whereas multiplex PCR showed cross-reactivity with Campylobacter species, the LAMP method developed in this study was more sensitive and reliable than conventional PCR or multiplex PCR for the detection of Arcobacter species.

Fusarium damage in cereal grains from Western Canada. 1. Phylogenetic analysis of moniliformin-producing fusarium species and their natural occurrence in mycotoxin-contaminated wheat, oats, and rye

Harvest samples of common wheat (Triticum aestivum), oats (Avena sativa), and rye (Secale cereale) from producers in western Canada were analyzed for fungal infection by toxigenic Fusarium species and contamination by trichothecenes and moniliformin (MON). Fusarium graminearum and F. avenaceum were the two most frequently isolated species from samples of rye and wheat collected in 2010. F. poae and F. sporotrichioides were more commonly detected in randomly selected oat seeds. Other toxigenic Fusarium species including F. acuminatum, F. culmorum, and F. pseudograminearum as well as Phaeosphaeria nodorum (a.k.a. Septoria nodorum) were recovered primarily from fusarium-damaged kernels of wheat. Pure cultures of F. avenaceum, F. acuminatum, and other related species known to produce moniliformin were isolated from incubated seeds based on micro- and macromorphological criteria. The phylogenetic analysis inferred from partial DNA sequences of the acl1 and tef-1α genes revealed two major clades representing F. avenaceum and F. acuminatum, respectively. These clades comprised all Canadian isolates of the two species and a number of reference cultures studied earlier for their propensity to form moniliformin in vitro and in planta. However, some reference cultures previously reported to produce significant amounts of moniliformin formed minor phylogenetic lineages that represent rather distinct but closely related species. Concomitantly, cereal samples were analyzed for the presence of deoxynivalenol and moniliformin. These two Fusarium toxins were observed most frequently in common wheat, at concentrations up to 1.1 and 4.0 mg/kg, respectively. There was no apparent relationship between moniliformin concentrations and detection of F. avenaceum and F. acuminatum in rye and oat samples. Geographical analysis of the distribution of moniliformin and F. avenaceum and F. acuminatum across the Canadian Prairies also did not indicate a strong relationship.

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): methods for plant species identification in food

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is a DNA-based analytical method that can be used as an isothermal alternative to polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In comparison to PCR, the advantage of LAMP is the possibility to perform the isothermal reaction without any sophisticated technical equipment; only a water bath is needed, and naked eye detection is sufficient. Up to now, an application of LAMP methods for the detection of even closely related plant species in food or feed matrices has not been described, whereas a large number of PCR methods for that topic are cited in the literature. The aim of the study was the evaluation of LAMP-based methods for plant species identification with respect to method parameters such as R(2), LOD, and LOQ. An existing (real-time) PCR method (for the detection of spices) was used for comparison. It could be shown that the developed LAMP methods have potential as alternative strategies to PCR in DNA-based analysis.

Development and application of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid identification of aflatoxigenic molds and their detection in food samples

Aflatoxins are the most thoroughly studied mycotoxins. They are produced by several members of the genus Aspergillus in section Flavi with Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, and Aspergillus nomius being frequently isolated from contaminated food sources. In this work, we describe the development and evaluation of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays for rapid detection of the three species in separate analyses. The acl1-gene of A. flavus and amy1-genes of A. nomius and A. parasiticus were used as target genes. The detection limits were 2.4, 7.6 and 20pg of pure DNA/reaction for A. flavus, A. nomius and A. parasiticus, respectively. For specificity testing, DNA extracted from mycelia of representative strains of 39 Aspergillus species, 23 Penicillium species, 75 Fusarium species and 37 other fungal species was used as a template for the specific LAMP primer sets developed for the three target species. The LAMP assay was combined with a DNA extraction method for the analysis of pure fungal cultures as well as artificially contaminated Brazil nuts, peanuts and green coffee beans. It is suggested that the developed LAMP assay is a promising tool in the prediction of a potential aflatoxin risk in food and food raw materials and may therefore be suitable for high throughput analysis in the food industry.