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Gunnarsdottir MJ, Gardarsson SM, Eriksson M, Albrechtsen HJ, Bergkvist KSG, Rossi PM, Matilainen R, Hansen LT, Jensen PE, Maréchal JYA, Myrmel M, Kalheim FC, Persson KM, Bjerkén A, Bartram J. Implementing risk-based approaches to improve drinking water quality in small water supplies in the Nordic region - barriers and solutions. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2023; 21:1747-1760. [PMID: 38153709 PMCID: wh_2023_088 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2023.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
Small water supplies face similar problems worldwide, regardless of ownership or management type. Non-compliance with water quality regulations is more frequent in small supplies than in large ones, as are waterborne disease outbreaks. The new European Union Drinking Water Directive requires risk-based approach (RBA) to secure water safety as is recommended in the World Health Organization's Guidelines for drinking water quality through 'water safety plans'. This is already in regulation in the Nordic countries, although less used in small supplies. In this research, we explore the challenges, barriers and possible solutions to implementing RBA and improving compliance in small supplies. This was achieved by conducting and analysing interviews with 53 stakeholders from all eight Nordic countries to produce recommendations for action by the different implicated actors. Our findings suggest the centrality of governmental policy, including support for continuous training, provision of simple RBA guidelines and increasing cooperation in the water sector. The Nordic experience reflects global challenges with small water supplies and the trend towards systematic preventive management epitomized in the framework for drinking water safety advocated by the World Health Organization since 2004.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria J Gunnarsdottir
- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland E-mail:
| | - Sigurdur M Gardarsson
- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Magnus Eriksson
- Åland Environmental and Health Protection Authority, Mariehamn, Åland
| | - Hans-Jörgen Albrechtsen
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kim Steve Gerlach Bergkvist
- Fiskaaling Agriculture Research Station, Við Áir, Faroe Islands; Faroese Food and Veterinary Authority, Torshavn, Faroe Islands
| | - Pekka M Rossi
- Water, Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, Finland
| | - Riikka Matilainen
- Water, Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, Finland
| | - Lisbeth Truelstrup Hansen
- Arctic DTU Sisimiut - Ilinniarfeqarfik Sisimiut, Greenland; National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Pernille Erland Jensen
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark; Arctic DTU Sisimiut - Ilinniarfeqarfik Sisimiut, Greenland
| | - Judith Y A Maréchal
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark; Arctic DTU Sisimiut - Ilinniarfeqarfik Sisimiut, Greenland
| | - Mette Myrmel
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | | | | | | | - Jamie Bartram
- School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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Teutschbein C, Albrecht F, Blicharska M, Tootoonchi F, Stenfors E, Grabs T. Drought hazards and stakeholder perception: Unraveling the interlinkages between drought severity, perceived impacts, preparedness, and management. AMBIO 2023; 52:1262-1281. [PMID: 37010693 PMCID: PMC10247940 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-023-01849-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The future risk for droughts and water shortages calls for substantial efforts by authorities to adapt at local levels. Understanding their perception of drought hazards, risk and vulnerability can help to identify drivers of and barriers to drought risk planning and management in a changing climate at the local level. This paper presents a novel interdisciplinary drought case study in Sweden that integrates soft data from a nationwide survey among more than 100 local practitioners and hard data based on hydrological measurements to provide a holistic assessment of the links between drought severity and the perceived levels of drought severity, impacts, preparedness, and management for two consecutive drought events. The paper highlights challenges for drought risk planning and management in a changing climate at the local level and elaborates on how improved understanding of local practitioners to plan for climate change adaptation can be achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Teutschbein
- Air, Water and Landscape Science, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Frederike Albrecht
- Department of Political Science and Law, Swedish Defence University, Box 278 05, 11593 Stockholm, Sweden
- Centre of Natural Hazards and Disaster Science (CNDS), Villavägen 16, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Malgorzata Blicharska
- Natural Resources and Sustainable Development, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Faranak Tootoonchi
- Air, Water and Landscape Science, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Elin Stenfors
- Air, Water and Landscape Science, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Thomas Grabs
- Air, Water and Landscape Science, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden
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Pundir S, Singh R, Singh P, Kandari V. Risk assessment and water safety planning for rural water supply in Uttarakhand, India. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2021; 193:795. [PMID: 34773150 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-021-09609-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
A water safety plan (WSP) has been developed for rural water supply in Dehradun district, Uttarakhand, India. Four public water utilities were chosen to demonstrate the application of WSP in improving the rural drinking water quality along with improved sanitation. Hazard identification and risk assessment carried out identified 10 hazardous events at all four utilities. Intermittent water supply, poor repair and maintenance of the supply channel machinery, and individual household sanitation practices were the potential sources of contamination. The study showed encouraging results, where the evaluated risks decreased substantially after implementing the control measures, along with improved water quality after WSP implementation which showed statistically significant results (p < .05) for all tested parameters, namely, turbidity (p = .000), total dissolved solids (p = .004), residual-free chlorine (p = .004), total coliforms (p = .000), and fecal coliforms (p = .003). The sanitation condition of water source and households also improved by adopting the suggested measures. The study recommends water safety planning, to empower the rural communities to safeguard their water sources, and for sustainable water supply management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Snigdha Pundir
- Department of Chemistry, DBS (PG) College, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, 248001, India.
| | - Rakesh Singh
- Department of Chemistry, DBS (PG) College, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, 248001, India
| | - Prashant Singh
- Department of Chemistry, DAV (PG) College, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, 248001, India
| | - Vikash Kandari
- Department of Chemistry, DAV (PG) College, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, 248001, India
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Surface Water Intrusion, Land Use Impacts, and Bacterial Community Composition in Shallow Groundwater Wells Supplying Potable Water in Sparsely Populated Areas of a Boreal Region. Microbiol Spectr 2021; 9:e0017921. [PMID: 34730413 PMCID: PMC8567237 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00179-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Rural communities often rely on groundwater for potable water supply. In this study, untreated groundwater samples from 28 shallow groundwater wells in Finland (<10 m deep and mostly supplying untreated groundwater to <200 users in rural areas) were assessed for physicochemical water quality, stable water isotopes, microbial water quality indicators, host-specific microbial source tracking (MST) markers, and bacterial community composition, activity, and diversity (using amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene and 16S rRNA). Indications of surface water intrusion were identified in five wells, and these indications were found to be negatively correlated, overall, with bacterial alpha diversity (based on amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene). High levels of turbidity, heterotrophs, and iron compromised water quality in two wells, with values up to 2.98 nephelometric turbidity units (NTU), 16,000 CFU/ml, and 2,300 μg/liter, respectively. Coliform bacteria and general fecal indicator Bacteroidales bacteria (GenBac3) were detected in 14 and 10 wells, respectively (albeit mostly at low levels), and correlations were identified between microbial, physicochemical, and environmental parameters, which may indicate impacts from nearby land use (e.g., agriculture, surface water, road salt used for deicing). Our results show that although water quality was generally adequate in most of the studied wells, the continued safe use of these wells should not be taken for granted. IMPORTANCE Standard physicochemical water quality analyses and microbial indicator analyses leave much of the (largely uncultured) complexity of groundwater microbial communities unexplored. This study combined these standard methods with additional analyses of stable water isotopes, bacterial community data, and environmental data about the surrounding areas to investigate the associations between physicochemical and microbial properties of 28 shallow groundwater wells in Finland. We detected impaired groundwater quality in some wells, identified potential land use impacts, and revealed indications of surface water intrusion which were negatively correlated with bacterial alpha diversity. The potential influence of surface water intrusion on groundwater wells and their bacterial communities is of particular interest and warrants further investigation because surface water intrusion has previously been linked to groundwater contamination, which is the primary cause of waterborne outbreaks in the Nordic region and one of the major causes in the United States and Canada.
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Gunnarsdottir MJ, Gardarsson SM, Schultz AC, Albrechtsen HJ, Hansen LT, Gerlach Bergkvist KS, Rossi PM, Klöve B, Myrmel M, Persson KM, Eriksson M, Bartram J. Status of risk-based approach and national framework for safe drinking water in small water supplies of the Nordic water sector. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2020; 230:113627. [PMID: 32956900 PMCID: PMC7500910 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Reliable safe water supply is a pillar of society and a key to public health. The Nordic countries have an abundance of clean fresh water as a source for drinking water supplies. They have followed developments in safeguarding water, both the recommendations of the World Health Organization framework for safe drinking water and European legislation. Worldwide, including the Nordic countries, small water supplies are less compliant with water safety regulation. The forthcoming EU directive on drinking water require risk-based approaches and improved transparency on water quality. This research looks at the Nordic frameworks for safe water supply, with emphasis on risk-based approaches and smaller systems. We analyzed the legal frameworks for safe water, the structure of the water sector across the Nordic countries and explored how prepared these countries are to meet these requirements. Our findings show that, while legal requirements are mostly in place, delivery of information to the public needs to be improved. Most Nordic countries are in the process of implementing risk-based management in large and medium size water supplies, whereas small supplies are lagging. We conclude that a key to success is increased training and support for small supplies. We suggest wider adoption of the Nordic model of cooperation with benchmarking of safe water for all to transfer knowledge between the countries. This work provides insights into challenges and opportunities for the Nordic countries and provides insights relevant to countries worldwide in their effort towards realization of SDG Target 6.1.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Magnus Eriksson
- Åland Islands Environmental and Health Protection Authority, Åland Islands
| | - Jamie Bartram
- University of North Carolina, USA; School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, UK
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Hyllestad S, Lund V, Nygård K, Aavitsland P, Vold L. The establishment and first experiences of a crisis advisory service for water supplies in Norway. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2020; 18:545-555. [PMID: 32833680 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2020.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Water supply systems, in particular small-scale water supply systems, are vulnerable to adverse events that may jeopardise safe drinking water. The consequences of contamination events or the failure of daily operations may be severe, affecting many people. In Norway, a 24-hour crisis advisory service was established in 2017 to provide advice on national water supplies. Competent and expert advisors from water suppliers throughout the country assist other water suppliers and individuals who may be in need of advice during an adverse event. This paper describes the establishment of this service and experiences from the first three years of its operation. Since the launch of the service, water suppliers across Norway have consulted it approximately one to two times a month for advice, in particular about contamination events and near misses. The outcomes have helped to improve guidance on water hygiene issues at the national level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Hyllestad
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Section of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, P.O. Box 222 Skøyen, 0213 Oslo, Norway E-mail: ; University of Oslo, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Health and Society, Oslo, Norway
| | - Vidar Lund
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Section of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, P.O. Box 222 Skøyen, 0213 Oslo, Norway E-mail:
| | - Karin Nygård
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Section of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, P.O. Box 222 Skøyen, 0213 Oslo, Norway E-mail:
| | - Preben Aavitsland
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Section of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, P.O. Box 222 Skøyen, 0213 Oslo, Norway E-mail: ; University of Oslo, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Health and Society, Oslo, Norway
| | - Line Vold
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Section of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, P.O. Box 222 Skøyen, 0213 Oslo, Norway E-mail:
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Gunnarsdottir MJ, Gardarsson SM, Figueras MJ, Puigdomènech C, Juárez R, Saucedo G, Arnedo MJ, Santos R, Monteiro S, Avery L, Pagaling E, Allan R, Abel C, Eglitis J, Hambsch B, Hügler M, Rajkovic A, Smigic N, Udovicki B, Albrechtsen HJ, López-Avilés A, Hunter P. Water safety plan enhancements with improved drinking water quality detection techniques. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 698:134185. [PMID: 31505354 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Drinking water quality has been regulated in most European countries for nearly two decades by the drinking water directive 98/83/EC. The directive is now under revision with the goal of meeting stricter demands for safe water for all citizens, as safe water has been recognized as a human right by the United Nations. An important change to the directive is the implementation of a risk-based approach in all regulated water supplies. The European Union Framework Seventh Programme Aquavalens project has developed several new detection technologies for pathogens and indicators and tested them in water supplies in seven European countries. One of the tasks of the project was to evaluate the impact of these new techniques on water safety and on water safety management. Data were collected on risk factors to water safety for five large supplies in Denmark, Germany, Spain and the UK, and for fifteen small water supplies in Scotland, Portugal and Serbia, via a questionnaire aiming to ascertain risk factors and the stage of implementation of Water Safety Plans, and via site-specific surveys known as Sanitary Site Inspection. Samples were collected from the water supplies from all stages of water production to delivery. Pathogens were detected in around 23% of the 470 samples tested. Fecal contamination was high in raw water and even in treated water at the small supplies. Old infrastructure was considered a challenge at all the water supplies. The results showed that some of the technique, if implemented as part of the water safety management, can detect rapidly the most common waterborne pathogens and fecal pollution indicators and therefore have a great early warning potential; can improve water safety for the consumer; can validate whether mitigation methods are working as intended; and can confirm the quality of the water at source and at the tap.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ricardo Santos
- Laboratório de Análises, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Silvia Monteiro
- Laboratório de Análises, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Lisa Avery
- The James Hutton Institute, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Eulyn Pagaling
- The James Hutton Institute, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Richard Allan
- The James Hutton Institute, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Claire Abel
- The James Hutton Institute, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Janis Eglitis
- Water Research Centre, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Alma López-Avilés
- University of Surrey, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Paul Hunter
- University of East Anglia, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
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Brainard J, Hammer CC, Bouzid M, Hunter PR. Emerging pathogens and deliberate attacks on European water supplies: a scenario planning workshop. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2019; 17:463-476. [PMID: 31095521 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2019.248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Microbiological contamination of drinking water supplies is an ever-present concern for water utility managers. Most such threats are routine, well-recognised and described. Therefore, they can usually be prevented using standard protection measures. Incidents involving emerging pathogens and malicious attacks are inherently less predictable. In a multi-stage process over one day, participants with backgrounds in microbiology, medicine, infrastructure, data analysis, environmental or public health and facility management developed qualitative scenarios on potential threats posed by either an emergent pathogen in or a microbiological attack on drinking water supplies in a European country. Participants were guided via structured activities to identify key factors that would impact the magnitude and severity of such an emergency. Plausible variant states for each key factor were determined, and participants constructed sequences of events to create scenario outlines. Five scenarios in outline form are reported which incorporate genuine possible future events as well as pathogens of international concern. Common features that would exacerbate all scenarios were under-investment in public services, inadequate water quality testing, and monitoring and lack of resources to keep water supplies safe. Participant evaluation of their scenario planning experience was broadly very positive and the scenario planning process was received as credible and relevant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julii Brainard
- Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, Norfolk, UK E-mail:
| | - Charlotte C Hammer
- Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, Norfolk, UK E-mail:
| | - Maha Bouzid
- Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, Norfolk, UK E-mail:
| | - Paul R Hunter
- Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, Norfolk, UK E-mail:
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