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Priyanka, Sharma S, Sharma M. Role of PE/PPE proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in triad of host mitochondria, oxidative stress and cell death. Microb Pathog 2024; 193:106757. [PMID: 38908454 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2024.106757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 06/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
The PE and PPE family proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is exclusively found in pathogenic Mycobacterium species, comprising approximately 8-10 % of the Mtb genome. These emerging virulent factors have been observed to play pivotal roles in Mtb pathogenesis and immune evasion through various strategies. These immunogenic proteins are known to modulate the host immune response and cell-death pathways by targeting the powerhouse of the cell, the mitochondria to support Mtb survival. In this article, we are focused on how PE/PPE family proteins target host mitochondria to induce mitochondrial perturbations, modulate the levels of cellular ROS (Reactive oxygen species) and control cell death pathways. We observed that the time of expression of these proteins at different stages of infection is crucial for elucidating their impact on the cell death pathways and eventually on the outcome of infection. This article focuses on understanding the contributions of the PE/PPE proteins by unravelling the triad of host mitochondria, oxidative stress and cell death pathways that facilitate the Mtb persistence. Understanding the role of these proteins in host cellular pathways and the intricate mechanisms paves the way for the development of novel therapeutic strategies to combat TB infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka
- DSKC BioDiscovery Laboratory, Miranda House, and Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110007, India.
| | - Sadhna Sharma
- DSKC BioDiscovery Laboratory, Miranda House, and Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110007, India.
| | - Monika Sharma
- DSKC BioDiscovery Laboratory, Miranda House, and Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110007, India.
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2
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Rodríguez-González J, Gutiérrez-Kobeh L. Apoptosis and its pathways as targets for intracellular pathogens to persist in cells. Parasitol Res 2023; 123:60. [PMID: 38112844 PMCID: PMC10730641 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-08031-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis is a finely programmed process of cell death in which cells silently dismantle and actively participate in several operations such as immune response, differentiation, and cell growth. It can be initiated by three main pathways: the extrinsic, the perforin granzyme, and the intrinsic that culminate in the activation of several proteins in charge of tearing down the cell. On the other hand, apoptosis represents an ordeal for pathogens that live inside cells and maintain a strong dependency with them; thus, they have evolved multiple strategies to manipulate host cell apoptosis on their behalf. It has been widely documented that diverse intracellular bacteria, fungi, and parasites can interfere with most steps of the host cell apoptotic machinery to inhibit or induce apoptosis. Indeed, the inhibition of apoptosis is considered a virulence property shared by many intracellular pathogens to ensure productive replication. Some pathogens intervene at an early stage by interfering with the sensing of extracellular signals or transduction pathways. Others sense cellular stress or target the apoptosis regulator proteins of the Bcl-2 family or caspases. In many cases, the exact molecular mechanisms leading to the interference with the host cell apoptotic cascade are still unknown. However, intense research has been conducted to elucidate the strategies employed by intracellular pathogens to modulate host cell death. In this review, we summarize the main routes of activation of apoptosis and present several processes used by different bacteria, fungi, and parasites to modulate the apoptosis of their host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Rodríguez-González
- Unidad de Investigación UNAM-INC, División de Investigación, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México-Instituto Nacional de Cardiología "Ignacio Chávez,", Juan Badiano No. 1, Col. Belisario Domínguez, Sección XVI, Delegación Tlalpan, C.P. 14080, Ciudad de México, México
- Laboratorio de Estudios Epidemiológicos, Clínicos, Diseños Experimentales e Investigación, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma "Benito Juárez" de Oaxaca, Oaxaca, Mexico
| | - Laila Gutiérrez-Kobeh
- Unidad de Investigación UNAM-INC, División de Investigación, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México-Instituto Nacional de Cardiología "Ignacio Chávez,", Juan Badiano No. 1, Col. Belisario Domínguez, Sección XVI, Delegación Tlalpan, C.P. 14080, Ciudad de México, México.
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3
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Liu W, Deng Y, Tan A, Zhao F, Chang O, Wang F, Lai Y, Huang Z. Intracellular behavior of Nocardia seriolae and its apoptotic effect on RAW264.7 macrophages. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1138422. [PMID: 36926518 PMCID: PMC10011490 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1138422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Nocardia seriolae, an intracellular gram-positive pathogen, is prone to infecting immunocompromised and surface-damaged fish, causing serious losses to the aquaculture industry. Although a previous study has demonstrated that N. seriolae infects macrophages, the persistence of this bacterium in macrophages has not been well characterized. To address this gap, we used the macrophage cell line RAW264.7, to investigate the interactions between N. seriolae and macrophages and deciphered the intracellular survival mechanism of N. seriolae. Confocal and light microscopy revealed that N. seriolae entered macrophages 2 hours post-inoculation (hpi), were phagocytosed by macrophages at 4-8 hpi, and induced the formation of multinucleated macrophages by severe fusion at 12 hpi. Flow cytometry, evaluation of mitochondrial membrane potential, release of lactate dehydrogenase, and observation of the ultrastructure of macrophages revealed that apoptosis was induced in the early infection stage and inhibited in the middle and later periods of infection. Additionally, the expression of Bcl-2, Bax, Cyto-C, Caspase-3, Capase-8, and Caspase-9 was induced at 4 hpi, and then decreased at 6-8 hpi, illustrating that N. seriolae infection induces the activation of extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways in macrophages, followed by the inhibition of apoptosis to survive inside the cells. Furthermore, N. seriolae inhibits the production of reactive oxygen species and releases large amounts of nitric oxide, which persists in macrophages during infection. The present study provides the first comprehensive insight into the intracellular behavior of N. seriolae and its apoptotic effect on macrophages and may be important for understanding the pathogenicity of fish nocardiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenwen Liu
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Guangzhou, China
- College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuting Deng
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Control of Quality and Safety for Aquatic Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Yuting Deng,
| | - Aiping Tan
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fei Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ouqing Chang
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yingtiao Lai
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhibin Huang
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Guangzhou, China
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4
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Nisa A, Kipper FC, Panigrahy D, Tiwari S, Kupz A, Subbian S. Different modalities of host cell death and their impact on Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2022; 323:C1444-C1474. [PMID: 36189975 PMCID: PMC9662802 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00246.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is the pathogen that causes tuberculosis (TB), a leading infectious disease of humans worldwide. One of the main histopathological hallmarks of TB is the formation of granulomas comprised of elaborately organized aggregates of immune cells containing the pathogen. Dissemination of Mtb from infected cells in the granulomas due to host and mycobacterial factors induces multiple cell death modalities in infected cells. Based on molecular mechanism, morphological characteristics, and signal dependency, there are two main categories of cell death: programmed and nonprogrammed. Programmed cell death (PCD), such as apoptosis and autophagy, is associated with a protective response to Mtb by keeping the bacteria encased within dead macrophages that can be readily phagocytosed by arriving in uninfected or neighboring cells. In contrast, non-PCD necrotic cell death favors the pathogen, resulting in bacterial release into the extracellular environment. Multiple types of cell death in the PCD category, including pyroptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, ETosis, parthanatos, and PANoptosis, may be involved in Mtb infection. Since PCD pathways are essential for host immunity to Mtb, therapeutic compounds targeting cell death signaling pathways have been experimentally tested for TB treatment. This review summarizes different modalities of Mtb-mediated host cell deaths, the molecular mechanisms underpinning host cell death during Mtb infection, and its potential implications for host immunity. In addition, targeting host cell death pathways as potential therapeutic and preventive approaches against Mtb infection is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annuurun Nisa
- Public Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Franciele C Kipper
- Center for Vascular Biology Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- Cancer Center, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Dipak Panigrahy
- Center for Vascular Biology Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- Cancer Center, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Sangeeta Tiwari
- Department of Biological Sciences, Border Biomedical Research Center (BBRC), University of Texas, El Paso, Texas
| | - Andreas Kupz
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM), James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Selvakumar Subbian
- Public Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
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5
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Label-Free Comparative Proteomics of Differentially Expressed Mycobacterium tuberculosis Protein in Rifampicin-Related Drug-Resistant Strains. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10050607. [PMID: 34063426 PMCID: PMC8157059 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10050607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Rifampicin (RIF) is one of the most important first-line anti-tuberculosis (TB) drugs, and more than 90% of RIF-resistant (RR) Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolates belong to multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) TB. In order to identify specific candidate target proteins as diagnostic markers or drug targets, differential protein expression between drug-sensitive (DS) and drug-resistant (DR) strains remains to be investigated. In the present study, a label-free, quantitative proteomics technique was performed to compare the proteome of DS, RR, MDR, and XDR clinical strains. We found iniC, Rv2141c, folB, and Rv2561 were up-regulated in both RR and MDR strains, while fadE9, espB, espL, esxK, and Rv3175 were down-regulated in the three DR strains when compared to the DS strain. In addition, lprF, mce2R, mce2B, and Rv2627c were specifically expressed in the three DR strains, and 41 proteins were not detected in the DS strain. Functional category showed that these differentially expressed proteins were mainly involved in the cell wall and cell processes. When compared to the RR strain, Rv2272, smtB, lpqB, icd1, and folK were up-regulated, while esxK, PPE19, Rv1534, rpmI, ureA, tpx, mpt64, frr, Rv3678c, esxB, esxA, and espL were down-regulated in both MDR and XDR strains. Additionally, nrp, PPE3, mntH, Rv1188, Rv1473, nadB, PPE36, and sseA were specifically expressed in both MDR and XDR strains, whereas 292 proteins were not identified when compared to the RR strain. When compared between MDR and XDR strains, 52 proteins were up-regulated, while 45 proteins were down-regulated in the XDR strain. 316 proteins were especially expressed in the XDR strain, while 92 proteins were especially detected in the MDR strain. Protein interaction networks further revealed the mechanism of their involvement in virulence and drug resistance. Therefore, these differentially expressed proteins are of great significance for exploring effective control strategies of DR-TB.
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Asaad M, Kaisar Ali M, Abo-Kadoum MA, Lambert N, Gong Z, Wang H, Uae M, Nazou SAE, Kuang Z, Xie J. Mycobacterium tuberculosis PPE10 (Rv0442c) alters host cell apoptosis and cytokine profile via linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex HOIP-NF-κB signaling axis. Int Immunopharmacol 2021; 94:107363. [PMID: 33667868 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2020.107363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Revised: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection remains one of the top ten causes of deaths worldwide. M. tuberculosis genome devoted 10% capacity for highly repeated PE/PPE genes family. To explore the role of PPE10 in host-pathogen interaction, PPE10 encoding gene Rv0442c was heterologously expressed in the nonpathogenic M. smegmatis strain. PPE10 altered the bacterial cell surface properties, colony morphology, and biofilm formation. Ms_PPE10 showed more resistance to stress conditions such as diamide, and low pH, as well as higher survival within the macrophage. Moreover, the host's cell apoptosis was regulated via decreased expression of caspases, IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α through the Linear Ubiquitin Chain Assembly Complex (LUBAC) HOIP-NF-κB signaling axis. The study revealed novel insights into the mechanism of action of the PPE family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Asaad
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, PR China; Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Omdurman Islamic University, Omdurman, Khartoum, Sudan
| | - Md Kaisar Ali
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, PR China
| | - M A Abo-Kadoum
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, PR China; Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University Assuit branch, Egypt
| | - Nzungize Lambert
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, PR China
| | - Zhen Gong
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, PR China
| | - Hao Wang
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, PR China
| | - Moure Uae
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, PR China
| | - Stech A E Nazou
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, PR China
| | - Zhongmei Kuang
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, PR China
| | - Jianping Xie
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, PR China.
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7
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Strong EJ, Jurcic Smith KL, Saini NK, Ng TW, Porcelli SA, Lee S. Identification of Autophagy-Inhibiting Factors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by High-Throughput Loss-of-Function Screening. Infect Immun 2020; 88:e00269-20. [PMID: 32989037 PMCID: PMC7671894 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00269-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The interaction of host cells with mycobacteria is complex and can lead to multiple outcomes ranging from bacterial clearance to progressive or latent infection. Autophagy is recognized as one component of host cell responses that has an essential role in innate and adaptive immunity to intracellular bacteria. Many microbes, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, have evolved to evade or exploit autophagy, but the precise mechanisms and virulence factors are mostly unknown. Through a loss-of-function screening of an M. tuberculosis transposon mutant library, we identified 16 genes that contribute to autophagy inhibition, six of which encoded the PE/PPE protein family. Their expression in Mycobacterium smegmatis confirmed that these PE/PPE proteins inhibit autophagy and increase intracellular bacterial persistence or replication in infected cells. These effects were associated with increased mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) activity and also with decreased production of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). We also confirmed that the targeted deletion of the pe/ppe genes in M. tuberculosis resulted in enhanced autophagy and improved intracellular survival rates compared to those of wild-type bacteria in the infected macrophages. Differential expression of these PE/PPE proteins was observed in response to various stress conditions, suggesting that they may confer advantages to M. tuberculosis by modulating its interactions with host cells under various conditions. Our findings demonstrated that multiple M. tuberculosis PE/PPE proteins are involved in inhibiting autophagy during infection of host phagocytes and may provide strategic targets in developing therapeutics or vaccines against tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Strong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | | | - Neeraj K Saini
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Tony W Ng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Steven A Porcelli
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Sunhee Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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8
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Behar SM, Briken V. Apoptosis inhibition by intracellular bacteria and its consequence on host immunity. Curr Opin Immunol 2019; 60:103-110. [PMID: 31228759 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2019.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Regulated cell death via apoptosis not only is important for organismal homeostasis but also serves as an innate defense mechanism. The engulfment of apoptotic infected cells, a process known as efferocytosis, is a common pathway for the destruction of many intracellular bacteria. Some pathogens take advantage of efferocytosis to prevent activation of macrophages and thereby facilitate their dissemination. Conversely, many obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens and some facultative-intracellular bacteria inhibit apoptosis, preventing efferocytosis, and evading innate host defenses. The molecular mechanism of bacterial effectors includes secreted proteins that bind to and inhibit apoptosis cell signaling pathways. We provide an overview of the known bacterial effectors, their host cell targets and their importance for the virulence of human pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel M Behar
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
| | - Volker Briken
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
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Slayden RA, Dawson CC, Cummings JE. Toxin-antitoxin systems and regulatory mechanisms in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Pathog Dis 2018; 76:4969681. [PMID: 29788125 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/fty039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
There has been a significant reduction in annual tuberculosis incidence since the World Health Organization declared tuberculosis a global health threat. However, treatment of M. tuberculosis infections requires lengthy multidrug therapeutic regimens to achieve a durable cure. The development of new drugs that are active against resistant strains and phenotypically diverse organisms continues to present the greatest challenge in the future. Numerous phylogenomic analyses have revealed that the Mtb genome encodes a significantly expanded repertoire of toxin-antitoxin (TA) loci that makes up the Mtb TA system. A TA loci is a two-gene operon encoding a 'toxin' protein that inhibits bacterial growth and an interacting 'antitoxin' partner that neutralizes the inhibitory activity of the toxin. The presence of multiple chromosomally encoded TA loci in Mtb raises important questions in regard to expansion, regulation and function. Thus, the functional roles of TA loci in Mtb pathogenesis have received considerable attention over the last decade. The cumulative results indicate that they are involved in regulating adaptive responses to stresses associated with the host environment and drug treatment. Here we review the TA families encoded in Mtb, discuss the duplication of TA loci in Mtb, regulatory mechanism of TA loci, and phenotypic heterogeneity and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Slayden
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-0922, USA
| | - Clinton C Dawson
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-0922, USA
| | - Jason E Cummings
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-0922, USA
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10
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Mohareer K, Asalla S, Banerjee S. Cell death at the cross roads of host-pathogen interaction in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2018; 113:99-121. [PMID: 30514519 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2018.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) continues to be the leading cause of death by any single infectious agent, accounting for around 1.7 million annual deaths globally, despite several interventions and support programs by national and international agencies. With the development of drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb), there has been a paradigm shift in TB research towards host-directed therapy. The potential targets include the interactions between host and bacterial proteins that are crucial for pathogenesis. Hence, collective efforts are being made to understand the molecular details of host-pathogen interaction for possible translation into host-directed therapy. The present review focuses on 'host cell death modalities' of host-pathogen interaction, which play a crucial role in determining the outcome of TB disease progression. Several cell death modalities that occur in response to mycobacterial infection have been identified in human macrophages either as host defences for bacterial clearance or as pathogen strategies for multiplication and dissemination. These cell death modalities include apoptosis, necrosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, pyronecrosis, NETosis, and autophagy. These processes are highly overlapping with several mycobacterial proteins participating in more than one cell death pathway. Until now, reviews in M. tb and host cell death have discussed either focusing on host evasion strategies, apoptosis, autophagy, and necrosis or describing all these forms with limited discussions of their role in host-pathogen interactions. Here, we present a comprehensive review of various mycobacterial factors modulating host cell death pathways and the cross-talk between them. Besides this, we have discussed the networking of host cell death pathways including the interference of host miRNA during M. tb infection with their respective targets. Through this review, we present the host targets that overlap across several cell death modalities and the technical limitations of methodology in cell death research. Given the compelling need to discover alternative drug target(s), this review identifies these overlapping cell death factors as potential targets for host-directed therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishnaveni Mohareer
- Molecular Pathogenesis Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana, India-500046
| | - Suman Asalla
- Molecular Pathogenesis Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana, India-500046
| | - Sharmistha Banerjee
- Molecular Pathogenesis Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana, India-500046.
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Asalla S, Mohareer K, Banerjee S. Small Molecule Mediated Restoration of Mitochondrial Function Augments Anti-Mycobacterial Activity of Human Macrophages Subjected to Cholesterol Induced Asymptomatic Dyslipidemia. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:439. [PMID: 29067283 PMCID: PMC5641336 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) infection manifests into tuberculosis (TB) in a small fraction of the infected population that comprises the TB susceptible group. Identifying the factors potentiating susceptibility to TB persistence is one of the prime agenda of TB control programs. Recently, WHO recognized diabetes as a risk factor for TB disease progression. The closely related pathological state of metabolic imbalance, dyslipidemia, is yet another emerging risk factor involving deregulation in host immune responses. While high cholesterol levels are clinically proven condition for perturbations in cardiac health, a significant fraction of population these days suffer from borderline risk cholesterol profiles. This apparently healthy population is susceptible to various health risks placing them in the "pre-disease" range. Our study focuses on determining the role of such asymptomatic dyslipidemia as a potential risk factor for susceptibility to TB persistence. Macrophages exposed to sub-pathological levels of cholesterol for chronic period, besides impaired release of TNF-α, could not clear intracellular pathogenic mycobacteria effectively as compared to the unexposed cells. These cells also allowed persistence of opportunistic mycobacterial infection by M. avium and M. bovis BCG, indicating highly compromised immune response. The cholesterol-treated macrophages developed a foamy phenotype with a significant increase in intracellular lipid-bodies prior to M.tb infection, potentially contributing to pre-disease state for tuberculosis infection. The foamy phenotype, known to support M.tb infection, increased several fold upon infection in these cells. Additionally, mitochondrial morphology and function were perturbed, more so during infection in cholesterol treated cells. Pharmacological supplementation with small molecule M1 that restored mitochondrial structural and functional integrity limited M.tb survival more effectively in cholesterol exposed macrophages. Mechanistically, M1 molecule promoted clearance of mycobacteria by reducing total cellular lipid content and restoring mitochondrial morphology and function to its steady state. We further supported our observations by infection assays in PBMC-derived macrophages from clinically healthy volunteers with borderline risk cholesterol profiles. With these observations, we propose that prolonged exposure to sub-pathological cholesterol can lead to asymptomatic susceptibility to M.tb persistence. Use of small molecules like M1 sets yet another strategy for host-directed therapy where re-functioning of mitochondria in cholesterol abused macrophages can improve M.tb clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Asalla
- Molecular Pathogenesis Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
| | - Krishnaveni Mohareer
- Molecular Pathogenesis Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
| | - Sharmistha Banerjee
- Molecular Pathogenesis Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
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Habib Z, Xu W, Jamal M, Rehman K, Dai J, Fu ZF, Chen X, Cao G. Adaptive gene profiling of Mycobacterium tuberculosis during sub-lethal kanamycin exposure. Microb Pathog 2017; 112:243-253. [PMID: 28966063 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2017.09.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to anti-tuberculosis drugs is a formidable obstacle to effective tuberculosis (TB) treatment and prevention globally. New forms of multidrug, extensive drug and total drug resistance Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) causing a serious threat to human as well as animal's population. Mtb shows diverse adaptability under stress conditions especially antibiotic treatment, however underlying physiological mechanism remained elusive. In present study, we investigated Mtb's response and adaptation with reference to gene expression during sub-lethal kanamycin exposure. Mtb were cultured under sub-lethal drug and control conditions, where half were sub-cultured every 3-days to observe serial adaptation under same conditions and the remaining were subjected to RNA-seq. We identified 98 up-regulated and 198 down-regulated responsive genes compared to control through differential analysis, of which Ra1750 and Ra3160 were the most responsive genes. In adaptive analysis, we found Ra1750, Ra3160, Ra3161, Ra3893 and Ra2492 up-regulation at early stage and gradually showed low expression levels at the later stages of drug exposure. The adaptive expression of Ra1750, Ra3160 and Ra3161 were further confirmed by real time qPCR. These results suggested that these genes contributed in Mtb's physiological adaptation during sub-lethal kanamycin exposure. Our findings may aid to edify these potential targets for drug development against drug resistance tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeshan Habib
- State Key Laboratory of Agriculture Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China.
| | - Weize Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China.
| | - Muhammad Jamal
- State Key Laboratory of Agriculture Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China.
| | - Khaista Rehman
- State Key Laboratory of Agriculture Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China.
| | - Jinxia Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Agriculture Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China.
| | - Zhen Fang Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Agriculture Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China; Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.
| | - Xi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agriculture Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China; College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China.
| | - Gang Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Agriculture Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China; Bio-Medcial Center, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, PR China.
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Li P, Gu Y, Li J, Xie L, Li X, Xie J. Mycobacterium tuberculosis Major Facilitator Superfamily Transporters. J Membr Biol 2017; 250:573-585. [DOI: 10.1007/s00232-017-9982-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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