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Schinkel M, Bousema T, van Rij RP. Tripartite interactions between viruses, parasites, and mosquitoes. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2024; 64:101222. [PMID: 38908822 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2024.101222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
Mosquito-borne diseases have a major impact on global human health. Biological agents that colonize the mosquito vector are increasingly explored as an intervention strategy to prevent vector-borne disease transmission. For instance, the release of mosquitoes carrying the endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia effectively reduced dengue virus incidence and disease. Insect-specific viruses are likewise considered as biocontrol agents against vector-borne diseases. While most studies focused on insect-specific viruses as an intervention against arthropod-borne viruses, we here consider whether mosquito-specific viruses may affect the transmission of the malaria-causing Plasmodium parasite by Anopheles mosquitoes. Although there is no direct experimental evidence addressing this question, we found that viral infections in dipteran insects activate some of the immune pathways that are antiparasitic in Anopheles. These findings suggest that indirect virus-parasite interactions could occur and that insect-specific viruses may modulate malaria transmission. Tripartite interactions between viruses, parasites, and Anopheles mosquitoes thus merit further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Schinkel
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Teun Bousema
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Ronald P van Rij
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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Cai JA, Christophides GK. Immune interactions between mosquitoes and microbes during midgut colonization. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2024; 63:101195. [PMID: 38552792 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2024.101195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
Mosquitoes encounter diverse microbes during their lifetime, including symbiotic bacteria, shaping their midgut ecosystem. The organization of the midgut supports microbiota persistence while defending against potential pathogens. The influx of nutrients during blood feeding triggers bacterial proliferation, challenging host homeostasis. Immune responses, aimed at controlling bacterial overgrowth, impact blood-borne pathogens such as malaria parasites. However, parasites deploy evasion strategies against mosquito immunity. Leveraging these mechanisms could help engineer malaria-resistant mosquitoes, offering a transformative tool for malaria elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia A Cai
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, SW7 2AZ London, United Kingdom
| | - George K Christophides
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, SW7 2AZ London, United Kingdom.
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3
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Andolina C, Graumans W, Guelbeogo M, van Gemert GJ, Ramijth J, Harouna S, Soumanaba Z, Stoter R, Vegte-Bolmer M, Pangos M, Sinnis P, Collins K, Staedke SG, Tiono AB, Drakeley C, Lanke K, Bousema T. Quantification of sporozoite expelling by Anopheles mosquitoes infected with laboratory and naturally circulating P. falciparum gametocytes. eLife 2024; 12:RP90989. [PMID: 38517746 PMCID: PMC10959522 DOI: 10.7554/elife.90989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/24/2024] Open
Abstract
It is currently unknown whether all Plasmodium falciparum-infected mosquitoes are equally infectious. We assessed sporogonic development using cultured gametocytes in the Netherlands and naturally circulating strains in Burkina Faso. We quantified the number of sporozoites expelled into artificial skin in relation to intact oocysts, ruptured oocysts, and residual salivary gland sporozoites. In laboratory conditions, higher total sporozoite burden was associated with shorter duration of sporogony (p<0.001). Overall, 53% (116/216) of infected Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes expelled sporozoites into artificial skin with a median of 136 expelled sporozoites (interquartile range [IQR], 34-501). There was a strong positive correlation between ruptured oocyst number and salivary gland sporozoite load (ρ = 0.8; p<0.0001) and a weaker positive correlation between salivary gland sporozoite load and number of sporozoites expelled (ρ = 0.35; p=0.0002). In Burkina Faso, Anopheles coluzzii mosquitoes were infected by natural gametocyte carriers. Among salivary gland sporozoite positive mosquitoes, 89% (33/37) expelled sporozoites with a median of 1035 expelled sporozoites (IQR, 171-2969). Again, we observed a strong correlation between ruptured oocyst number and salivary gland sporozoite load (ρ = 0.9; p<0.0001) and a positive correlation between salivary gland sporozoite load and the number of sporozoites expelled (ρ = 0.7; p<0.0001). Several mosquitoes expelled multiple parasite clones during probing. Whilst sporozoite expelling was regularly observed from mosquitoes with low infection burdens, our findings indicate that mosquito infection burden is positively associated with the number of expelled sporozoites. Future work is required to determine the direct implications of these findings for transmission potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Andolina
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical CentreNijmegenNetherlands
| | - Wouter Graumans
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical CentreNijmegenNetherlands
| | - Moussa Guelbeogo
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le PaludismeOuagadougouBurkina Faso
| | - Geert-Jan van Gemert
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical CentreNijmegenNetherlands
| | - Jordache Ramijth
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical CentreNijmegenNetherlands
| | - Soré Harouna
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le PaludismeOuagadougouBurkina Faso
| | - Zongo Soumanaba
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le PaludismeOuagadougouBurkina Faso
| | - Rianne Stoter
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical CentreNijmegenNetherlands
| | - Marga Vegte-Bolmer
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical CentreNijmegenNetherlands
| | - Martina Pangos
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria GiulianoIsontina TriesteTriesteItaly
| | - Photini Sinnis
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns HopkinsBloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Katharine Collins
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical CentreNijmegenNetherlands
| | - Sarah G Staedke
- Liverpool School of Tropical MedicineLiverpoolUnited Kingdom
| | - Alfred B Tiono
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le PaludismeOuagadougouBurkina Faso
| | - Chris Drakeley
- Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Kjerstin Lanke
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical CentreNijmegenNetherlands
| | - Teun Bousema
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical CentreNijmegenNetherlands
- Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineLondonUnited Kingdom
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Zmarlak NM, Lavazec C, Brito-Fravallo E, Genève C, Aliprandini E, Aguirre-Botero MC, Vernick KD, Mitri C. The Anopheles leucine-rich repeat protein APL1C is a pathogen binding factor recognizing Plasmodium ookinetes and sporozoites. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012008. [PMID: 38354186 PMCID: PMC10898737 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat (LRR) proteins are commonly involved in innate immunity of animals and plants, including for pattern recognition of pathogen-derived elicitors. The Anopheles secreted LRR proteins APL1C and LRIM1 are required for malaria ookinete killing in conjunction with the complement-like TEP1 protein. However, the mechanism of parasite immune recognition by the mosquito remains unclear, although it is known that TEP1 lacks inherent binding specificity. Here, we find that APL1C and LRIM1 bind specifically to Plasmodium berghei ookinetes, even after depletion of TEP1 transcript and protein, consistent with a role for the LRR proteins in pathogen recognition. Moreover, APL1C does not bind to ookinetes of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, and is not required for killing of this parasite, which correlates LRR binding specificity and immune protection. Most of the live P. berghei ookinetes that migrated into the extracellular space exposed to mosquito hemolymph, and almost all dead ookinetes, are bound by APL1C, thus associating LRR protein binding with parasite killing. We also find that APL1C binds to the surface of P. berghei sporozoites released from oocysts into the mosquito hemocoel and forms a potent barrier limiting salivary gland invasion and mosquito infectivity. Pathogen binding by APL1C provides the first functional explanation for the long-known requirement of APL1C for P. berghei ookinete killing in the mosquito midgut. We propose that secreted mosquito LRR proteins are required for pathogen discrimination and orientation of immune effector activity, potentially as functional counterparts of the immunoglobulin-based receptors used by vertebrates for antigen recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Marta Zmarlak
- Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, CNRS UMR2000, Unit of Genetics and Genomics of Insect Vectors, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
- Graduate School of Life Sciences ED515, Sorbonne Universities, UPMC Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Lavazec
- Inserm U1016, CNRS UMR8104, Université de Paris, Institut Cochin, Paris, France
| | - Emma Brito-Fravallo
- Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, CNRS UMR2000, Unit of Genetics and Genomics of Insect Vectors, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
| | - Corinne Genève
- Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, CNRS UMR2000, Unit of Genetics and Genomics of Insect Vectors, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
| | - Eduardo Aliprandini
- Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, Unit of Malaria Infection & Immunity, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
| | - Manuela Camille Aguirre-Botero
- Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, Unit of Malaria Infection & Immunity, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
| | - Kenneth D. Vernick
- Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, CNRS UMR2000, Unit of Genetics and Genomics of Insect Vectors, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
- Graduate School of Life Sciences ED515, Sorbonne Universities, UPMC Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Christian Mitri
- Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, CNRS UMR2000, Unit of Genetics and Genomics of Insect Vectors, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
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Garrigós M, Ylla G, Martínez-de la Puente J, Figuerola J, Ruiz-López MJ. Two avian Plasmodium species trigger different transcriptional responses on their vector Culex pipiens. Mol Ecol 2023:e17240. [PMID: 38108558 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by protozoans of the genus Plasmodium that affects both humans and wildlife. The fitness consequences of infections by avian malaria are well known in birds, however, little information exists on its impact on mosquitoes. Here we study how Culex pipiens mosquitoes transcriptionally respond to infection by two different Plasmodium species, P. relictum and P. cathemerium, differing in their virulence (mortality rate) and transmissibility (parasite presence in exposed mosquitoes' saliva). We studied the mosquito response to the infection at three critical stages of parasite development: the formation of ookinetes at 24 h post-infection (hpi), the release of sporozoites into the hemocoel at 10 days post-infection (dpi), and the storage of sporozoites in the salivary glands at 21 dpi. For each time point, we characterized the gene expression of mosquitoes infected with each P. relictum and P. cathemerium and mosquitoes fed on an uninfected bird and, subsequently, compared their transcriptomic responses. Differential gene expression analysis showed that most transcriptomic changes occurred during the early infection stage (24 hpi), especially when comparing P. relictum and P. cathemerium-infected mosquitoes. Differentially expressed genes in mosquitoes infected with each species were related mainly to the metabolism of the immune response, trypsin, and other serine-proteases. We conclude that these differences in response may partly play a role in the differential virulence and transmissibility previously observed between P. relictum and P. cathemerium in Cx. pipiens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Garrigós
- Department of Parasitology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Guillem Ylla
- Bioinformatics and Genome Biology Lab, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Josué Martínez-de la Puente
- Department of Parasitology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jordi Figuerola
- CIBER Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana, CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
| | - María José Ruiz-López
- CIBER Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana, CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
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Cardoso-Jaime V, Maya-Maldonado K, Tsutsumi V, Hernández-Martínez S. Mosquito pericardial cells upregulate Cecropin expression after an immune challenge. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 147:104745. [PMID: 37268262 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2023.104745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Most mosquito-transmitted pathogens grow or replicate in the midgut before invading the salivary glands. Pathogens are exposed to several immunological factors along the way. Recently, it was shown that hemocytes gather near the periostial region of the heart to efficiently phagocytose pathogens circulating in the hemolymph. Nerveless, not all pathogens can be phagocyted by hemocytes and eliminated by lysis. Interestingly, some studies have shown that pericardial cells (PCs) surrounding periostial regions, may produce humoral factors, such as lysozymes. Our current work provides evidence that Anopheles albimanus PCs are a major producer of Cecropin 1 (Cec1). Furthermore, our findings reveal that after an immunological challenge, PCs upregulate Cec1 expression. We conclude that PCs are positioned in a strategic location that could allow releasing humoral components, such as cecropin, to lyse pathogens on the heart or circulating in the hemolymph, implying that PCs could play a significant role in the systemic immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Cardoso-Jaime
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública. Av. Universidad 655, Santa María Ahuacatitlan, Cuernavaca, Morelos, C.P. 62100, Mexico; Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN. Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Gustavo A. Madero, Ciudad de México, C.P. 07360, Mexico
| | - Krystal Maya-Maldonado
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública. Av. Universidad 655, Santa María Ahuacatitlan, Cuernavaca, Morelos, C.P. 62100, Mexico; Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN. Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Gustavo A. Madero, Ciudad de México, C.P. 07360, Mexico
| | - Víctor Tsutsumi
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN. Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Gustavo A. Madero, Ciudad de México, C.P. 07360, Mexico.
| | - Salvador Hernández-Martínez
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública. Av. Universidad 655, Santa María Ahuacatitlan, Cuernavaca, Morelos, C.P. 62100, Mexico.
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Pires CV, Chawla J, Simmons C, Gibbons J, Adams JH. Heat-shock responses: systemic and essential ways of malaria parasite survival. Curr Opin Microbiol 2023; 73:102322. [PMID: 37130502 PMCID: PMC10247345 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2023.102322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Fever is a part of the human innate immune response that contributes to limiting microbial growth and development in many infectious diseases. For the parasite Plasmodium falciparum, survival of febrile temperatures is crucial for its successful propagation in human populations as well as a fundamental aspect of malaria pathogenesis. This review discusses recent insights into the biological complexity of the malaria parasite's heat-shock response, which involves many cellular compartments and essential metabolic processes to alleviate oxidative stress and accumulation of damaged and unfolded proteins. We highlight the overlap between heat-shock and artemisinin resistance responses, while also explaining how the malaria parasite adapts its fever response to fight artemisinin treatment. Additionally, we discuss how this systemic and essential fight for survival can also contribute to parasite transmission to mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla V Pires
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Jyotsna Chawla
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States; Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Caroline Simmons
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States; Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Justin Gibbons
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - John H Adams
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States; Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States.
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Salcedo MK, Jun BH, Socha JJ, Pierce NE, Vlachos PP, Combes SA. Complex hemolymph circulation patterns in grasshopper wings. Commun Biol 2023; 6:313. [PMID: 36959465 PMCID: PMC10036482 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-04651-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023] Open
Abstract
An insect's living systems-circulation, respiration, and a branching nervous system-extend from the body into the wing. Wing hemolymph circulation is critical for hydrating tissues and supplying nutrients to living systems such as sensory organs across the wing. Despite the critical role of hemolymph circulation in maintaining healthy wing function, wings are often considered "lifeless" cuticle, and flows remain largely unquantified. High-speed fluorescent microscopy and particle tracking of hemolymph in the wings and body of the grasshopper Schistocerca americana revealed dynamic flow in every vein of the fore- and hindwings. The global system forms a circuit, but local flow behavior is complex, exhibiting three distinct types: pulsatile, aperiodic, and "leaky" flow. Thoracic wing hearts pull hemolymph from the wing at slower frequencies than the dorsal vessel; however, the velocity of returning hemolymph (in the hindwing) is faster than in that of the dorsal vessel. To characterize the wing's internal flow mechanics, we mapped dimensionless flow parameters across the wings, revealing viscous flow regimes. Wings sustain ecologically important insect behaviors such as pollination and migration. Analysis of the wing circulatory system provides a template for future studies investigating the critical hemodynamics necessary to sustaining wing health and insect flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary K Salcedo
- Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
| | - Brian H Jun
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - John J Socha
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Naomi E Pierce
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Pavlos P Vlachos
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Stacey A Combes
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior, UC Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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Loubens M, Marinach C, Paquereau CE, Hamada S, Hoareau-Coudert B, Akbar D, Franetich JF, Silvie O. The claudin-like apicomplexan microneme protein is required for gliding motility and infectivity of Plasmodium sporozoites. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011261. [PMID: 36928686 PMCID: PMC10047546 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Invasion of host cells by apicomplexan parasites such as Toxoplasma and Plasmodium spp requires the sequential secretion of the parasite apical organelles, the micronemes and the rhoptries. The claudin-like apicomplexan microneme protein (CLAMP) is a conserved protein that plays an essential role during invasion by Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites and in Plasmodium falciparum asexual blood stages. CLAMP is also expressed in Plasmodium sporozoites, the mosquito-transmitted forms of the malaria parasite, but its role in this stage is still unknown. CLAMP is essential for Plasmodium blood stage growth and is refractory to conventional gene deletion. To circumvent this obstacle and study the function of CLAMP in sporozoites, we used a conditional genome editing strategy based on the dimerisable Cre recombinase in the rodent malaria model parasite P. berghei. We successfully deleted clamp gene in P. berghei transmission stages and analyzed the functional consequences on sporozoite infectivity. In mosquitoes, sporozoite development and egress from oocysts was not affected in conditional mutants. However, invasion of the mosquito salivary glands was dramatically reduced upon deletion of clamp gene. In addition, CLAMP-deficient sporozoites were impaired in cell traversal and productive invasion of mammalian hepatocytes. This severe phenotype was associated with major defects in gliding motility and with reduced shedding of the sporozoite adhesin TRAP. Expansion microscopy revealed partial colocalization of CLAMP and TRAP in a subset of micronemes, and a distinct accumulation of CLAMP at the apical tip of sporozoites. Collectively, these results demonstrate that CLAMP is essential across invasive stages of the malaria parasite, and support a role of the protein upstream of host cell invasion, possibly by regulating the secretion or function of adhesins in Plasmodium sporozoites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manon Loubens
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Carine Marinach
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Clara-Eva Paquereau
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Soumia Hamada
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, UMS PASS, Plateforme Post-génomique de la Pitié Salpêtrière (P3S), Paris, France
| | - Bénédicte Hoareau-Coudert
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, UMS PASS, Plateforme de cytométrie de la Pitié-Salpêtrière (CyPS), Paris, France
| | - David Akbar
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Hôpital de la Pitié Salpêtrière, Paris Brain Institute, ICM Quant Cell imaging Core Facility, Paris, France
| | - Jean-François Franetich
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Silvie
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
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Nguiffo-Nguete D, Nongley Nkemngo F, Ndo C, Agbor JP, Boussougou-Sambe ST, Salako Djogbénou L, Ntoumi F, Adegnika AA, Borrmann S, Wondji CS. Plasmodium malariae contributes to high levels of malaria transmission in a forest-savannah transition area in Cameroon. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:31. [PMID: 36698132 PMCID: PMC9875470 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05635-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Malaria control efforts are highly skewed towards Plasmodium falciparum while overlooking other Plasmodium species such as P. malariae. A better understanding of the role of Plasmodium species other than P. falciparum is needed to strengthen malaria elimination initiatives. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the contribution of P. malariae to malaria transmission in Cameroon. METHODS The study was conducted in the Ngatti Health District, a forest-savannah transition area in the Adamawa Region, Cameroon. A total of 497 individuals aged from 1 to 85 years were diagnosed with malaria in November 2020 using a rapid diagnostic test (RDT) and microscopy. Adult mosquitoes were collected between September 2019 and March 2020 by indoor aspiration and identified morphologically and molecularly. The infection status of Plasmodium spp. was also determined by quantitative PCR, and dried blood spots were collected from 156 participants with the aim to detect different Plasmodium species by nested PCR. RESULTS The overall Plasmodium prevalence was 50.3%, 51.8% and 64.7%, as detected by microscopy, the RDT and PCR, respectively. Based on the PCR results, P. falciparum was the most prevalent species (43%); followed by co-infections P. falciparum/P. malariae (17%), P. falciparum/P. ovale (1.3%), P. falciparum/P. ovale/P. malariae (1.3%); and then by P. malariae mono-infection (2.5%). The same trend was observed using microscopy, with 35% of participants infected with P. falciparum, 11% co-infected with P. falciparum/P. malariae and 4% infected with P. malariae. The prevalence and parasite density of malaria infection varied significantly with age group (P < 0.05), with the highest prevalence rate observed in children aged 6-10 years (P = 0.0001) while the density of Plasmodium infection increased significantly in children aged < 5 years compared to the other age groups (P = 10-3). Among the 757 Anopheles mosquitoes collected, 737 (97.35%) were An. funestus sensu stricto, 15 (1.9%) were An. gambiae and 5 (0.6%) were An. hancocki. The Plasmodium species recorded at the head/thorax level were P. falciparum and P. malariae, with a sporozoite infection rate of 8.4%; the highest sporozoite infection rate was recorded at Mibellon village (13.6%). CONCLUSION The results of this study reveal the significant contribution of P. malariae, in addition to P. falciparum, to the high malaria transmission rate in this region. These findings highlight the need to deploy initiatives to also tackle this Plasmodium species to eliminate malaria in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Francis Nongley Nkemngo
- Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaoundé, Cameroon
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Cyrille Ndo
- Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaoundé, Cameroon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Douala, P.O. Box 24157, Douala, Cameroon
| | - Jean-Pierre Agbor
- Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Stravensky T. Boussougou-Sambe
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut Für Tropenmedizin, Eberhard Karls Universität, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Luc Salako Djogbénou
- Institut Régional de Santé Publique, Ouidah, Bénin
- University of Abomey-Calavi, Ouidah, Bénin
| | - Francine Ntoumi
- Fondation Congolaise Pour La Recherche Médicale, Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo
| | - Ayôla A. Adegnika
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut Für Tropenmedizin, Eberhard Karls Universität, Tübingen, Germany
- Fondation Pour La Recherche Scientifique (FORS), Cotonou, Benin
- German Center for Infection Research, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Steffen Borrmann
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut Für Tropenmedizin, Eberhard Karls Universität, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Charles S. Wondji
- Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaoundé, Cameroon
- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Yaoundé, Cameroon
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
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11
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Immune defense mechanisms against a systemic bacterial infection in the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis). J Invertebr Pathol 2022; 195:107850. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2022.107850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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12
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Evolutionary consequences of vector-borne transmission: how using vectors shapes host, vector and pathogen evolution. Parasitology 2022; 149:1667-1678. [PMID: 36200511 PMCID: PMC10090782 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182022001378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Transmission mode is a key factor that influences host–parasite coevolution. Vector-borne pathogens are among the most important disease agents for humans and wildlife due to their broad distribution, high diversity, prevalence and lethality. They comprise some of the most important and widespread human pathogens, such as yellow fever, leishmania and malaria. Vector-borne parasites (in this review, those transmitted by blood-feeding Diptera) follow unique transmission routes towards their vertebrate hosts. Consequently, each part of this tri-partite (i.e. parasite, vector and host) interaction can influence co- and counter-evolutionary pressures among antagonists. This mode of transmission may favour the evolution of greater virulence to the vertebrate host; however, pathogen–vector interactions can also have a broad spectrum of fitness costs to the insect vector. To complete their life cycle, vector-borne pathogens must overcome immune responses from 2 unrelated organisms, since they can activate responses in both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts, possibly creating a trade-off between investments against both types of immunity. Here, we assess how dipteran vector-borne transmission shapes the evolution of hosts, vectors and the pathogens themselves. Hosts, vectors and pathogens co-evolve together in a constant antagonistic arms race with each participant's primary goal being to maximize its performance and fitness.
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13
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dos Santos NAC, Magi FN, Andrade AO, Bastos ADS, Pereira SDS, Medeiros JF, Araujo MDS. Assessment of antibiotic treatment on Anopheles darlingi survival and susceptibility to Plasmodium vivax. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:971083. [PMID: 36274692 PMCID: PMC9583876 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.971083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic treatment has been used to enhance anopheline susceptibility to Plasmodium infection, because bacterial microbiota play a fundamental role in modulating the vector competence of mosquitoes that transmit Plasmodium parasites. However, few studies have examined the impact of antibiotic treatments on Plasmodium vivax sporogonic development in neotropical anopheline mosquitoes. Herein, we assessed the impact of antibiotic treatment on P. vivax development and survival in Anopheles darlingi, the main vector of malaria in the Amazon region. Female mosquitoes were treated continuously with antibiotics to impact the gut bacterial load and then tested for prevalence, infection intensity, and survival in comparison with untreated mosquitoes. Antibiotic-fed mosquitoes had not dramatic impact on P. vivax development previously observed in P. falciparum. However, antibiotic treatment increases mosquito survival, which is known to increase vectorial capacity. These findings raise questions about the effect of antibiotics on P. vivax development and survival in An. darlingi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Najara Akira Costa dos Santos
- Postgraduate Program in Experimental Biology, Federal University of Rondonia/Fiocruz Rondonia, Porto Velho, Brazil
- Platform of Production and Infection of Malaria Vectors (PIVEM), Laboratory of Entomology, Fiocruz Rondonia, Porto Velho, Brazil
| | - Felipe Neves Magi
- Platform of Production and Infection of Malaria Vectors (PIVEM), Laboratory of Entomology, Fiocruz Rondonia, Porto Velho, Brazil
| | - Alice Oliveira Andrade
- Platform of Production and Infection of Malaria Vectors (PIVEM), Laboratory of Entomology, Fiocruz Rondonia, Porto Velho, Brazil
| | - Alessandra da Silva Bastos
- Postgraduate Program in Experimental Biology, Federal University of Rondonia/Fiocruz Rondonia, Porto Velho, Brazil
- Platform of Production and Infection of Malaria Vectors (PIVEM), Laboratory of Entomology, Fiocruz Rondonia, Porto Velho, Brazil
| | | | - Jansen Fernandes Medeiros
- Postgraduate Program in Experimental Biology, Federal University of Rondonia/Fiocruz Rondonia, Porto Velho, Brazil
- Platform of Production and Infection of Malaria Vectors (PIVEM), Laboratory of Entomology, Fiocruz Rondonia, Porto Velho, Brazil
| | - Maisa da Silva Araujo
- Platform of Production and Infection of Malaria Vectors (PIVEM), Laboratory of Entomology, Fiocruz Rondonia, Porto Velho, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Maisa da Silva Araujo,
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14
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Cardoso-Jaime V, Tikhe CV, Dong S, Dimopoulos G. The Role of Mosquito Hemocytes in Viral Infections. Viruses 2022; 14:v14102088. [PMID: 36298644 PMCID: PMC9608948 DOI: 10.3390/v14102088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Insect hemocytes are the only immune cells that can mount a humoral and cellular immune response. Despite the critical involvement of hemocytes in immune responses against bacteria, fungi, and parasites in mosquitoes, our understanding of their antiviral potential is still limited. It has been shown that hemocytes express humoral factors such as TEP1, PPO, and certain antimicrobial peptides that are known to restrict viral infections. Insect hemocytes also harbor the major immune pathways, such as JAK/STAT, TOLL, IMD, and RNAi, which are critical for the control of viral infection. Recent research has indicated a role for hemocytes in the regulation of viral infection through RNA interference and autophagy; however, the specific mechanism by which this regulation occurs remains uncharacterized. Conversely, some studies have suggested that hemocytes act as agonists of arboviral infection because they lack basal lamina and circulate throughout the whole mosquito, likely facilitating viral dissemination to other tissues such as salivary glands. In addition, hemocytes produce arbovirus agonist factors such as lectins, which enhance viral infection. Here, we summarize our current understanding of hemocytes’ involvement in viral infections.
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15
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Ferreira FC, Videvall E, Seidl CM, Wagner NE, Kilpatrick AM, Fleischer RC, Fonseca DM. Transcriptional response of individual Hawaiian Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes to the avian malaria parasite Plasmodium relictum. Malar J 2022; 21:249. [PMID: 36038897 PMCID: PMC9422152 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-022-04271-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plasmodium parasites that cause bird malaria occur in all continents except Antarctica and are primarily transmitted by mosquitoes in the genus Culex. Culex quinquefasciatus, the mosquito vector of avian malaria in Hawaiʻi, became established in the islands in the 1820s. While the deadly effects of malaria on endemic bird species have been documented for many decades, vector-parasite interactions in avian malaria systems are relatively understudied. Methods To evaluate the gene expression response of mosquitoes exposed to a Plasmodium infection intensity known to occur naturally in Hawaiʻi, offspring of wild-collected Hawaiian Cx. quinquefasciatus were fed on a domestic canary infected with a fresh isolate of Plasmodium relictum GRW4 from a wild-caught Hawaiian honeycreeper. Control mosquitoes were fed on an uninfected canary. Transcriptomes of five infected and three uninfected individual mosquitoes were sequenced at each of three stages of the parasite life cycle: 24 h post feeding (hpf) during ookinete invasion; 5 days post feeding (dpf) when oocysts are developing; 10 dpf when sporozoites are released and invade the salivary glands. Results Differential gene expression analyses showed that during ookinete invasion (24 hpf), genes related to oxidoreductase activity and galactose catabolism had lower expression levels in infected mosquitoes compared to controls. Oocyst development (5 dpf) was associated with reduced expression of a gene with a predicted innate immune function. At 10 dpf, infected mosquitoes had reduced expression levels of a serine protease inhibitor, and further studies should assess its role as a Plasmodium agonist in C. quinquefasciatus. Overall, the differential gene expression response of Hawaiian Culex exposed to a Plasmodium infection intensity known to occur naturally in Hawaiʻi was low, but more pronounced during ookinete invasion. Conclusions This is the first analysis of the transcriptional responses of vectors to malaria parasites in non-mammalian systems. Interestingly, few similarities were found between the response of Culex infected with a bird Plasmodium and those reported in Anopheles infected with human Plasmodium. The relatively small transcriptional changes observed in mosquito genes related to immune response and nutrient metabolism support conclusions of low fitness costs often documented in experimental challenges of Culex with avian Plasmodium. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12936-022-04271-x.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco C Ferreira
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA. .,Center for Vector Biology, Entomology Department, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.
| | - Elin Videvall
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA.,Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.,Institute at Brown for Environment and Society, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.,Animal Ecology, Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Christa M Seidl
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Nicole E Wagner
- Center for Vector Biology, Entomology Department, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - A Marm Kilpatrick
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Robert C Fleischer
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Dina M Fonseca
- Center for Vector Biology, Entomology Department, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
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16
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Menze BD, Tchouakui M, Mugenzi LMJ, Tchapga W, Tchoupo M, Wondji MJ, Chiumia M, Mzilahowa T, Wondji CS. Marked aggravation of pyrethroid resistance in major malaria vectors in Malawi between 2014 and 2021 is partly linked with increased expression of P450 alleles. BMC Infect Dis 2022; 22:660. [PMID: 35907831 PMCID: PMC9338535 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-022-07596-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increased intensity of pyrethroid resistance is threatening the effectiveness of insecticide-based interventions to control malaria in Africa. Assessing the extent of this aggravation and its impact on the efficacy of these tools is vital to ensure the continued control of major vectors. Here we took advantage of 2009 and 2014 data from Malawi to establish the extent of the resistance escalation in 2021 and assessed its impact on various bed nets performance. METHODS Indoor blood-fed and wild female Anopheles (An) mosquitoes were collected with an electric aspirator in Chikwawa. Cocktail and SINE PCR were used to identify sibling species belonging to An. funestus group and An. gambiae complex. The susceptibility profile to the four classes of insecticides was assessed using the WHO tubes bioassays. Data were saved in an Excel file. Analysis was done using Vassarstats and figures by Graph Pad. RESULTS In this study, a high level of resistance was observed with pyrethroids (permethrin, deltamethrin and alpha-cypermethrin with mortality rate at 5x discriminating concentration (DC) < 50% and Mortality rate at 10x DC < 70%). A high level of resistance was also observed to carbamate (bendiocarb) with mortality rate at 5x DC < 25%). Aggravation of resistance was also noticed between 2009 and 2021. For pyrethroids, the mortality rate for permethrin reduced from 47.2% in 2009 to 13% in 2014 and 6.7% in 2021. For deltamethrin, the mortality rate reduced from 42.3% in 2009 to 1.75% in 2014 and 5.2% in 2021. For Bendiocarb, the mortality rate reduced from 60% in 2009 to 30.1% in 2014 and 12.2% in 2021. The high resistance observed is consistent with a drastic loss of pyrethroid-only bed nets efficacy although Piperonyl butoxide (PBO)-based nets remain effective. The resistance pattern observed was linked with high up-regulation of the P450 genes CYP6P9a, CYP6P9b and CYP6M7 in An. funestus s.s. mosquitoes surviving exposure to deltamethrin at 1x, 5x and 10x DC. A significant association was observed between the 6.5 kb structural variant and resistance escalation with homozygote resistant (SV+/SV+) more likely to survive exposure to 5x and 10x (OR = 4.1; P < 0.001) deltamethrin than heterozygotes. However, a significant proportion of mosquitoes survived the synergist assays with PBO suggesting that other mechanisms than P450s are present. CONCLUSIONS This resistance aggravation in An. funestus s.s. Malawian population highlights an urgent need to deploy novel control tools not relying on pyrethroids to improve the effectiveness of vector control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin D Menze
- Medical Entomology Department, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaoundé, Cameroon.
| | - Magellan Tchouakui
- Medical Entomology Department, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Leon M J Mugenzi
- Medical Entomology Department, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Williams Tchapga
- Medical Entomology Department, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Micareme Tchoupo
- Medical Entomology Department, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Murielle J Wondji
- Medical Entomology Department, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaoundé, Cameroon
- Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Martin Chiumia
- Malaria Alert Centre (MAC), Kamuzu University of Health Sciences (KUHeS), Blantyre, Malawi
| | - Themba Mzilahowa
- Malaria Alert Centre (MAC), Kamuzu University of Health Sciences (KUHeS), Blantyre, Malawi
| | - Charles S Wondji
- Medical Entomology Department, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaoundé, Cameroon.
- Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.
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Dash M, Sachdeva S, Bansal A, Sinha A. Gametogenesis in Plasmodium: Delving Deeper to Connect the Dots. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:877907. [PMID: 35782151 PMCID: PMC9241518 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.877907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the coming decades, eliminating malaria is the foremost goal of many tropical countries. Transmission control, along with an accurate and timely diagnosis of malaria, effective treatment and prevention are the different aspects that need to be met synchronously to accomplish the goal. The current review is focused on one of these aspects i.e., transmission control, by looking deeper into the event called gametogenesis. In the Plasmodium life cycle, gametocytes are the first life forms of the sexual phase. The transmission of the parasite and the disease is critically dependent on the number, viability and sex ratio of mature gametocytes and their further development inside mosquito vectors. Gametogenesis, the process of conversion of gametocytes into viable gametes, takes place inside the mosquito midgut, and is a tightly regulated event with fast and multiple rounds of DNA replication and diverse cellular changes going on within a short period. Interrupting the gametocyte-gamete transition is ought to restrict the successful transmission and progression of the disease and hence an area worth exploring for designing transmission-blocking strategies. This review summarizes an in-depth and up-to-date understanding of the biochemical and physiological mechanism of gametogenesis in Plasmodium, which could be targeted to control parasite and malaria transmission. This review also raises certain key questions regarding gametogenesis biology in Plasmodium and brings out gaps that still accompany in understanding the spectacular process of gametogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoswini Dash
- Parasite Host Biology, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India
- Central Molecular Laboratory, Govind Ballabh (GB) Pant Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Sherry Sachdeva
- Parasite Host Biology, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Abhisheka Bansal
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Abhinav Sinha
- Parasite Host Biology, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India
- *Correspondence: Abhinav Sinha,
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Yan Y, Ramakrishnan A, Estévez-Lao TY, Hillyer JF. Transglutaminase 3 negatively regulates immune responses on the heart of the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. Sci Rep 2022; 12:6715. [PMID: 35468918 PMCID: PMC9038791 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10766-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune and circulatory systems of insects are functionally integrated. Following infection, immune cells called hemocytes aggregate around the ostia (valves) of the heart. An earlier RNA sequencing project in the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, revealed that the heart-associated hemocytes, called periostial hemocytes, express transglutaminases more highly than hemocytes elsewhere in the body. Here, we further queried the expression of these transglutaminase genes and examined whether they play a role in heart-associated immune responses. We found that, in the whole body, injury upregulates the expression of TGase2, whereas infection upregulates TGase1, TGase2 and TGase3. RNAi-based knockdown of TGase1 and TGase2 did not alter periostial hemocyte aggregation, but knockdown of TGase3 increased the number of periostial hemocytes during the early stages of infection and the sequestration of melanin by periostial hemocytes during the later stages of infection. In uninfected mosquitoes, knockdown of TGase3 also slightly reduced the number of sessile hemocytes outside of the periostial regions. Taken altogether, these data show that TGase3 negatively regulates periostial hemocyte aggregation, and we hypothesize that this occurs by negatively regulating the immune deficiency pathway and by altering hemocyte adhesion. In conclusion, TGase3 is involved in the functional integration between the immune and circulatory systems of mosquitoes.
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Chawla J, Oberstaller J, Adams JH. Targeting Gametocytes of the Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum in a Functional Genomics Era: Next Steps. Pathogens 2021; 10:346. [PMID: 33809464 PMCID: PMC7999360 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10030346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Mosquito transmission of the deadly malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is mediated by mature sexual forms (gametocytes). Circulating in the vertebrate host, relatively few intraerythrocytic gametocytes are picked up during a bloodmeal to continue sexual development in the mosquito vector. Human-to-vector transmission thus represents an infection bottleneck in the parasite's life cycle for therapeutic interventions to prevent malaria. Even though recent progress has been made in the identification of genetic factors linked to gametocytogenesis, a plethora of genes essential for sexual-stage development are yet to be unraveled. In this review, we revisit P. falciparum transmission biology by discussing targetable features of gametocytes and provide a perspective on a forward-genetic approach for identification of novel transmission-blocking candidates in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyotsna Chawla
- Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B Downs Blvd, MDC 7, Tampa, FL 33612, USA;
| | - Jenna Oberstaller
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research and USF Genomics Program, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd, Suite 404, Tampa, FL 33612, USA;
| | - John H. Adams
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research and USF Genomics Program, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd, Suite 404, Tampa, FL 33612, USA;
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Ruberto AA, Bourke C, Merienne N, Obadia T, Amino R, Mueller I. Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals developmental heterogeneity among Plasmodium berghei sporozoites. Sci Rep 2021; 11:4127. [PMID: 33619283 PMCID: PMC7900125 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82914-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In the malaria-causing parasite's life cycle, Plasmodium sporozoites must travel from the midgut of a mosquito to the salivary glands before they can infect a mammalian host. However, only a fraction of sporozoites complete the journey. Since salivary gland invasion is required for transmission of sporozoites, insights at the molecular level can contribute to strategies for malaria prevention. Recent advances in single-cell RNA sequencing provide an opportunity to assess sporozoite heterogeneity at a resolution unattainable by bulk RNA sequencing methods. In this study, we use a droplet-based single-cell RNA sequencing workflow to analyze the transcriptomes of over 8000 Plasmodium berghei sporozoites derived from the midguts and salivary glands of Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. The detection of known marker genes confirms the successful capture and sequencing of samples composed of a mixed population of sporozoites. Using data integration, clustering, and trajectory analyses, we reveal differences in gene expression profiles of individual sporozoites, and identify both annotated and unannotated markers associated with sporozoite development. Our work highlights the utility of a high-throughput workflow for the transcriptomic profiling of Plasmodium sporozoites, and provides new insights into gene usage during the parasite's development in the mosquito.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A Ruberto
- Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
| | - Caitlin Bourke
- Division of Population Health and Immunity, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Nicolas Merienne
- Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Thomas Obadia
- Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Hub de Bioinformatique et Biostatistique - Département Biologie Computationnelle, Institut Pasteur, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Rogerio Amino
- Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Ivo Mueller
- Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
- Division of Population Health and Immunity, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
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21
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Briquet S, Marinach C, Silvie O, Vaquero C. Preparing for Transmission: Gene Regulation in Plasmodium Sporozoites. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 10:618430. [PMID: 33585284 PMCID: PMC7878544 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.618430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites are transmitted to mammals by anopheline mosquitoes and first infect the liver, where they transform into replicative exoerythrocytic forms, which subsequently release thousands of merozoites that invade erythrocytes and initiate the malaria disease. In some species, sporozoites can transform into dormant hypnozoites in the liver, which cause malaria relapses upon reactivation. Transmission from the insect vector to a mammalian host is a critical step of the parasite life cycle, and requires tightly regulated gene expression. Sporozoites are formed inside oocysts in the mosquito midgut and become fully infectious after colonization of the insect salivary glands, where they remain quiescent until transmission. Parasite maturation into infectious sporozoites is associated with reprogramming of the sporozoite transcriptome and proteome, which depends on multiple layers of transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms. An emerging scheme is that gene expression in Plasmodium sporozoites is controlled by alternating waves of transcription activity and translational repression, which shape the parasite RNA and protein repertoires for successful transition from the mosquito vector to the mammalian host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Briquet
- Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, INSERM, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Carine Marinach
- Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, INSERM, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Silvie
- Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, INSERM, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Vaquero
- Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, INSERM, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
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22
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Cardoso-Jaime V, Maya-Maldonado K, Celestino-Montes A, Tsutsumi V, Hernández-Martínez S. Lysozyme c-1 gene is overexpressed in Anopheles albimanus pericardial cells after an immune challenge. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 114:103830. [PMID: 32805306 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2020.103830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Different evidences suggest that pericardial cells play an important role during the immune response against pathogens that invade the mosquito hemocoel. Previously, we identified two lysozyme genes in Anopheles albimanus heart transcriptome. The present study showed that one of these genes (IDVB: AALB004517) has high percentage of identity to mosquito lysozyme genes related to immunity, suggesting its possible participation during the mosquito immune response. This An. albimanus gen, constitutively expressed lysozyme c-1 mRNA (albLys c-1) in mosquito heart; however, it was overexpressed in bacteria-injected mosquitoes. In heart extract samples, we identified a protein of approximately 14 kDa (likely lysozyme c-1), which lysed M. luteus. In addition, mRNA-FISH assay in heart samples, showed specific fluorescent hybridization signal in pericardial cells from M. luteus-injected mosquitos. We conclude that for the first time an inducible immune factor (lysozyme c-1) is identified in Anopheles albimanus mosquito pericardial cells, which could be a key component in the response against pathogens that interact with the mosquito heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Cardoso-Jaime
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN, Ciudad de México, Mexico; Centro de Investigación Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Krystal Maya-Maldonado
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN, Ciudad de México, Mexico; Centro de Investigación Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Antonio Celestino-Montes
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Víctor Tsutsumi
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN, Ciudad de México, Mexico.
| | - Salvador Hernández-Martínez
- Centro de Investigación Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
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Plasmodium's journey through the Anopheles mosquito: A comprehensive review. Biochimie 2020; 181:176-190. [PMID: 33346039 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2020.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The malaria parasite has an extraordinary ability to evade the immune system due to which the development of a malaria vaccine is a challenging task. Extensive research on malarial infection in the human host particularly during the liver stage has resulted in the discovery of potential candidate vaccines including RTS,S/AS01 and R21. However, complete elimination of malaria would require a holistic multi-component approach. In line with this, under the World Health Organization's PATH Malaria Vaccine Initiative (MVI), the research focus has shifted towards the sexual stages of malaria in the mosquito host. Last two decades of scientific research obtained seminal information regarding the sexual/mosquito stages of the malaria. This updated and comprehensive review would provide the basis for consolidated understanding of cellular, biochemical, molecular and immunological aspects of parasite transmission right from the sexual stage commitment in the human host to the sporozoite delivery back into subsequent vertebrate host by the female Anopheles mosquito.
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24
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Hajkazemian M, Bossé C, Mozūraitis R, Emami SN. Battleground midgut: The cost to the mosquito for hosting the malaria parasite. Biol Cell 2020; 113:79-94. [PMID: 33125724 DOI: 10.1111/boc.202000039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In eco-evolutionary studies of parasite-host interactions, virulence is defined as a reduction in host fitness as a result of infection relative to an uninfected host. Pathogen virulence may either promote parasite transmission, when correlated with higher parasite replication rate, or decrease the transmission rate if the pathogen quickly kills the host. This evolutionary mechanism, referred to as 'trade-off' theory, proposes that pathogen virulence evolves towards a level that most benefits the transmission. It has been generally predicted that pathogens evolve towards low virulence in their insect vectors, mainly due to the high dependence of parasite transmission on their vector survival. Therefore, the degree of virulence which malaria parasites impose on mosquito vectors may depend on several external and internal factors. Here, we review briefly (i) the role of mosquito in parasite development, with a particular focus on mosquito midgut as the battleground between Plasmodium and the mosquito host. We aim to point out (ii) the histology of the mosquito midgut epithelium and its role in host defence against parasite's countermeasures in the three main battle sites, namely (a) the lumen (microbiota and biochemical environment), (b) the peritrophic membrane (physical barrier) and (c) the tubular epithelium including the basal membrane (physical and biochemical barrier). Lastly, (iii) we describe the impact which malaria parasite and its virulence factors have on mosquito fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melika Hajkazemian
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Clément Bossé
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.,François Rabelais University, Tours, France
| | - Raimondas Mozūraitis
- Laboratory of Chemical and Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology, Nature Research Centre, Vilnius, Lithuania.,Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - S Noushin Emami
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.,Molecular Attraction AB, Hägersten, Stockholm, Sweden.,Natural Resources Institute, FES, University of Greenwich, London, UK
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25
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Zeeshan M, Brady D, Stanway RR, Moores CA, Holder AA, Tewari R. Plasmodium berghei Kinesin-5 Associates With the Spindle Apparatus During Cell Division and Is Important for Efficient Production of Infectious Sporozoites. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:583812. [PMID: 33154955 PMCID: PMC7591757 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.583812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Kinesin-5 motors play essential roles in spindle apparatus assembly during cell division, by generating forces to establish and maintain the spindle bipolarity essential for proper chromosome segregation. Kinesin-5 is largely conserved structurally and functionally in model eukaryotes, but its role is unknown in the Plasmodium parasite, an evolutionarily divergent organism with several atypical features of both mitotic and meiotic cell division. We have investigated the function and subcellular location of kinesin-5 during cell division throughout the Plasmodium berghei life cycle. Deletion of kinesin-5 had little visible effect at any proliferative stage except sporozoite production in oocysts, resulting in a significant decrease in the number of motile sporozoites in mosquito salivary glands, which were able to infect a new vertebrate host. Live-cell imaging showed kinesin-5-GFP located on the spindle and at spindle poles during both atypical mitosis and meiosis. Fixed-cell immunofluorescence assays revealed kinesin-5 co-localized with α-tubulin and centrin-2 and a partial overlap with kinetochore marker NDC80 during early blood stage schizogony. Dual-color live-cell imaging showed that kinesin-5 is closely associated with NDC80 during male gametogony, but not with kinesin-8B, a marker of the basal body and axonemes of the forming flagella. Treatment of gametocytes with microtubule-specific inhibitors confirmed kinesin-5 association with nuclear spindles and not cytoplasmic axonemal microtubules. Altogether, our results demonstrate that kinesin-5 is associated with the spindle apparatus, expressed in proliferating parasite stages, and important for efficient production of infectious sporozoites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Zeeshan
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Declan Brady
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | | | - Carolyn A. Moores
- Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony A. Holder
- Malaria Parasitology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rita Tewari
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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26
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Abstract
Insect wings are living, flexible structures composed of tubular veins and thin wing membrane. Wing veins can contain hemolymph (insect blood), tracheae, and nerves. Continuous flow of hemolymph within insect wings ensures that sensory hairs, structural elements such as resilin, and other living tissue within the wings remain functional. While it is well known that hemolymph circulates through insect wings, the extent of wing circulation (e.g., whether flow is present in every vein, and whether it is confined to the veins alone) is not well understood, especially for wings with complex wing venation. Over the last 100 years, scientists have developed experimental methods including microscopy, fluorescence, and thermography to observe flow in the wings. Recognizing and evaluating the importance of hemolymph movement in insect wings is critical in evaluating how the wings function both as flight appendages, as active sensors, and as thermoregulatory organs. In this review, we discuss the history of circulation in wings, past and present experimental techniques for measuring hemolymph, and broad implications for the field of hemodynamics in insect wings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary K Salcedo
- Department of Biomedical and Mechanical Engineering Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - John J Socha
- Department of Biomedical and Mechanical Engineering Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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27
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Qasim M, Xiao H, He K, Omar MAA, Liu F, Ahmed S, Li F. Genetic engineering and bacterial pathogenesis against the vectorial capacity of mosquitoes. Microb Pathog 2020; 147:104391. [PMID: 32679245 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 07/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Mosquitoes are the main vector of multiple diseases worldwide and transmit viral (malaria, chikungunya, encephalitis, yellow fever, as well as dengue fever), as well as bacterial diseases (tularemia). To manage the outbreak of mosquito populations, various management programs include the application of chemicals, followed by biological and genetic control. Here we aimed to focus on the role of bacterial pathogenesis and molecular tactics for the management of mosquitoes and their vectorial capacity. Bacterial pathogenesis and molecular manipulations have a substantial impact on the biology of mosquitoes, and both strategies change the gene expression and regulation of disease vectors. The strategy for genetic modification is also proved to be excellent for the management of mosquitoes, which halt the development of population via incompatibility of different sex. Therefore, the purpose of the present discussion is to illustrate the impact of both approaches against the vectorial capacity of mosquitoes. Moreover, it could be helpful to understand the relationship of insect-pathogen and to manage various insect vectors as well as diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Qasim
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
| | - Huamei Xiao
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; College of Life Sciences and Resource Environment, Key Laboratory of Crop Growth and Development Regulation of Jiangxi Province, Yichun University, Yichun, 336000, China
| | - Kang He
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Mohamed A A Omar
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Feiling Liu
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Sohail Ahmed
- Department of Entomology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan
| | - Fei Li
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
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28
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Chauhan C, Das De T, Kumari S, Rani J, Sharma P, Tevatiya S, Pandey KC, Pande V, Dixit R. Hemocyte-specific FREP13 abrogates the exogenous bacterial population in the hemolymph and promotes midgut endosymbionts in Anopheles stephensi. Immunol Cell Biol 2020; 98:757-769. [PMID: 32623757 DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The immune blood cells "hemocytes" of mosquitoes impart a highly selective immune response against various microorganisms/pathogens. Among several immune effectors, fibrinogen-related proteins (FREPs) have been recognized as key modulators of cellular immune responses; however, their physiological relevance has not been investigated in detail. Our ongoing comparative RNA-sequencing analysis identified a total of 13 FREPs originating from naïve sugar-fed, blood-fed, bacterial challenged and Plasmodium vivax-infected hemocytes in Anopheles stephensi. Transcriptional profiling of the selected seven FREP transcripts showed distinct responses against different pathophysiological conditions, where an exclusive induction of FREP12 after 10 days of P. vivax infection was observed. This represents a possible role of FREP12 in immunity against free circulating sporozoites and needs to be explored in the future. When challenged with live bacterial injection in the thorax, we observed a higher affinity of FREP13 and FREP65 toward Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria in the mosquito hemocytes, respectively. Furthermore, we observed increased bacterial survival and proliferation, which is likely compromised by the downregulation of TEP1, in FREP13 messenger RNA-depleted mosquito hemolymph. In contrast, after blood-feeding, we also noticed a significant delay of 24 h in the enrichment of gut endosymbionts in the FREP13-silenced mosquitoes. Taken together, we conclude that hemocyte-specific FREP13 carries the unique ability of tissue-specific regulation, having an antagonistic antibacterial role in the hemolymph, and an agonistic role against gut endosymbionts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charu Chauhan
- Laboratory of Host-Parasite Interaction Studies, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110077, India.,Department of Biotechnology, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Tanwee Das De
- Laboratory of Host-Parasite Interaction Studies, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110077, India
| | - Seena Kumari
- Laboratory of Host-Parasite Interaction Studies, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110077, India.,Department of Biotechnology, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Jyoti Rani
- Laboratory of Host-Parasite Interaction Studies, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110077, India
| | - Punita Sharma
- Laboratory of Host-Parasite Interaction Studies, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110077, India
| | - Sanjay Tevatiya
- Laboratory of Host-Parasite Interaction Studies, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110077, India.,Department of Biotechnology, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Kailash C Pandey
- Laboratory of Host-Parasite Interaction Studies, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110077, India
| | - Veena Pande
- Department of Biotechnology, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Rajnikant Dixit
- Laboratory of Host-Parasite Interaction Studies, ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110077, India
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29
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Graumans W, Jacobs E, Bousema T, Sinnis P. When Is a Plasmodium-Infected Mosquito an Infectious Mosquito? Trends Parasitol 2020; 36:705-716. [PMID: 32620501 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2020.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium parasites experience significant bottlenecks as they transit through the mosquito and are transmitted to their mammalian host. Oocyst prevalence on mosquito midguts and sporozoite prevalence in salivary glands are nevertheless commonly used to confirm successful malaria transmission, assuming that these are reliable indicators of the mosquito's capacity to give rise to secondary infections. Here we discuss recent insights in sporogonic development and transmission bottlenecks for Plasmodium. We highlight critical gaps in our knowledge and frame their importance in understanding the human and mosquito reservoirs of infection. A better understanding of the events that lead to successful inoculation of infectious sporozoites by mosquitoes is critical to designing effective interventions to shrink the malaria map.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter Graumans
- Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Department of Medical Microbiology, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ella Jacobs
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, and Johns Hopkins Malaria Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Teun Bousema
- Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Department of Medical Microbiology, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
| | - Photini Sinnis
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, and Johns Hopkins Malaria Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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30
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King JG. Developmental and comparative perspectives on mosquito immunity. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 103:103458. [PMID: 31377103 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2019.103458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Diseases spread by mosquitoes have killed more people than those spread by any other group of arthropod vectors and remain an important factor in determining global health and economic stability. The mosquito innate immune system can act to either modulate infection with human pathogens or fight off entomopathogens and increase the fitness and longevity of infected mosquitoes. While work remains towards understanding the larval immune system and the development of the mosquito immune system, it has recently become clearer that environmental factors heavily shape the developing mosquito immune system and continue to influence the adult immune system as well. The adult immune system has been well-studied and is known to involve multiple tissues and diverse molecular mechanisms. This review summarizes and synthesizes what is currently understood about the development of the mosquito immune system and includes comparisons of immune components unique to mosquitoes among the blood-feeding arthropods as well as important distinguishing factors between the anopheline and culicine mosquitoes. An explanation is included for how mosquito immunity factors into vector competence and vectorial capacity is presented along with a model for the interrelationships between nutrition, microbiome, pathogen interactions and behavior as they relate to mosquito development, immune status, adult female fitness and ultimately, vectorial capacity. Novel discoveries in the fields of mosquito ecoimmunology, neuroimmunology, and intracellular antiviral responses are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas G King
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Entomology and Plant Pathology, Mississippi State University, 32 Creelman Street, Dorman 402, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
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31
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Chagas CRF, Bukauskaitė D, Ilgūnas M, Bernotienė R, Iezhova T, Valkiūnas G. Sporogony of four Haemoproteus species (Haemosporida: Haemoproteidae), with report of in vitro ookinetes of Haemoproteus hirundinis: phylogenetic inference indicates patterns of haemosporidian parasite ookinete development. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:422. [PMID: 31462309 PMCID: PMC6714444 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3679-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Haemoproteus (Parahaemoproteus) species (Haemoproteidae) are widespread blood parasites that can cause disease in birds, but information about their vector species, sporogonic development and transmission remain fragmentary. This study aimed to investigate the complete sporogonic development of four Haemoproteus species in Culicoides nubeculosus and to test if phylogenies based on the cytochrome b gene (cytb) reflect patterns of ookinete development in haemosporidian parasites. Additionally, one cytb lineage of Haemoproteus was identified to the species level and the in vitro gametogenesis and ookinete development of Haemoproteus hirundinis was characterised. METHODS Laboratory-reared C. nubeculosus were exposed by allowing them to take blood meals on naturally infected birds harbouring single infections of Haemoproteus belopolskyi (cytb lineage hHIICT1), Haemoproteus hirundinis (hDELURB2), Haemoproteus nucleocondensus (hGRW01) and Haemoproteus lanii (hRB1). Infected insects were dissected at intervals in order to detect sporogonic stages. In vitro exflagellation, gametogenesis and ookinete development of H. hirundinis were also investigated. Microscopic examination and PCR-based methods were used to confirm species identity. Bayesian phylogenetic inference was applied to study the relationships among Haemoproteus lineages. RESULTS All studied parasites completed sporogony in C. nubeculosus. Ookinetes and sporozoites were found and described. Development of H. hirundinis ookinetes was similar both in vivo and in vitro. Developing ookinetes of this parasite possess long outgrowths, which extend longitudinally and produce the apical end of the ookinetes. A large group of closely related Haemoproteus species with a similar mode of ookinete development was determined. Bayesian analysis indicates that this character has phylogenetic value. The species identity of cytb lineage hDELURB2 was determined: it belongs to H. hirundinis. CONCLUSIONS Culicoides nubeculosus is susceptible to and is a likely natural vector of numerous species of Haemoproteus parasites, thus worth attention in haemoproteosis epidemiology research. Data about in vitro development of haemoproteids provide valuable information about the rate of ookinete maturation and are recommended to use as helpful step during vector studies of haemosporidian parasites, particularly because they guide proper dissection interval of infected insects for ookinete detection during in vivo experiments. Additionally, in vitro studies readily identified patterns of morphological ookinete transformations, the characters of which are of phylogenetic value in haemosporidian parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dovilė Bukauskaitė
- Institute of Ecology, Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, LT-08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Mikas Ilgūnas
- Institute of Ecology, Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, LT-08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Rasa Bernotienė
- Institute of Ecology, Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, LT-08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Tatjana Iezhova
- Institute of Ecology, Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, LT-08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Gediminas Valkiūnas
- Institute of Ecology, Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, LT-08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
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32
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Kojin BB, Adelman ZN. The Sporozoite's Journey Through the Mosquito: A Critical Examination of Host and Parasite Factors Required for Salivary Gland Invasion. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
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33
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Wells MB, Andrew DJ. Anopheles Salivary Gland Architecture Shapes Plasmodium Sporozoite Availability for Transmission. mBio 2019; 10:e01238-19. [PMID: 31387905 PMCID: PMC6686039 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01238-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites (SPZs) must traverse the mosquito salivary glands (SGs) to reach a new vertebrate host and continue the malaria disease cycle. Although SGs can harbor thousands of sporozoites, only 10 to 100 are deposited into a host during probing. To determine how the SGs might function as a bottleneck in SPZ transmission, we have characterized Anopheles stephensi SGs infected with the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei using immunofluorescence confocal microscopy. Our analyses corroborate findings from previous electron microscopy studies and provide new insights into the invasion process. We identified sites of SPZ accumulation within SGs across a range of infection intensities. Although SPZs were most often seen in the distal lateral SG lobes, they were also observed in the medial and proximal lateral lobes. Most parasites were associated with either the basement membrane or secretory cavities. SPZs accumulated at physical barriers, including fused salivary ducts and extensions of the chitinous salivary duct wall into the distal lumen. SPZs were observed only rarely within salivary ducts. SPZs appeared to contact each other in many different quantities, not just in the previously described large bundles. Within parasite bundles, all of the SPZs were oriented in the same direction. We found that moderate levels of infection did not necessarily correlate with major SG disruptions or abundant SG cell death. Altogether, our findings suggest that SG architecture largely acts as a barrier to SPZ transmission.IMPORTANCE Malaria continues to have a devastating impact on human health. With growing resistance to insecticides and antimalarial drugs, as well as climate change predictions indicating expansion of vector territories, the impact of malaria is likely to increase. Additional insights regarding pathogen migration through vector mosquitoes are needed to develop novel methods to prevent transmission to new hosts. Pathogens, including the microbes that cause malaria, must invade the salivary glands (SGs) for transmission. Since SG traversal is required for parasite transmission, SGs are ideal targets for transmission-blocking strategies. The work presented here highlights the role that mosquito SG architecture plays in limiting parasite traversal, revealing how the SG transmission bottleneck is imposed. Further, our data provide unprecedented detail about SG-sporozoite interactions and gland-to-gland variation not provided in previous studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B Wells
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Deborah J Andrew
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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34
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Ramírez AL, van den Hurk AF, Mackay IM, Yang ASP, Hewitson GR, McMahon JL, Boddey JA, Ritchie SA, Erickson SM. Malaria surveillance from both ends: concurrent detection of Plasmodium falciparum in saliva and excreta harvested from Anopheles mosquitoes. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:355. [PMID: 31319880 PMCID: PMC6639908 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3610-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Malaria is the most important vector-borne disease in the world. Epidemiological and ecological studies of malaria traditionally utilize detection of Plasmodium sporozoites in whole mosquitoes or salivary glands by microscopy or serological or molecular assays. However, these methods are labor-intensive, and can over- or underestimate mosquito transmission potential. To overcome these limitations, alternative sample types have been evaluated for the study of malaria. It was recently shown that Plasmodium could be detected in saliva expectorated on honey-soaked cards by Anopheles stephensi, providing a better estimate of transmission risk. We evaluated whether excretion of Plasmodium falciparum nucleic acid by An. stephensi correlates with expectoration of parasites in saliva, thus providing an additional sample type for estimating transmission potential. Mosquitoes were exposed to infectious blood meals containing cultured gametocytes, and excreta collected at different time points post-exposure. Saliva was collected on honey-soaked filter paper cards, and salivary glands were dissected and examined microscopically for sporozoites. Excreta and saliva samples were tested by real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-rtPCR). Results Plasmodium falciparum RNA was detected in mosquito excreta as early as four days after ingesting a bloodmeal containing gametocytes. Once sporogony (the development of sporozoites) occurred, P. falciparum RNA was detected concurrently in both excreta and saliva samples. In the majority of cases, no difference was observed between the Ct values obtained from matched excreta and saliva samples, suggesting that both samples provide equally sensitive results. A positive association was observed between the molecular detection of the parasites in both samples and the proportion of mosquitoes with sporozoites in their salivary glands from each container. No distinguishable parasites were observed when excreta samples were stained and microscopically analyzed. Conclusions Mosquito saliva and excreta are easily collected and are promising for surveillance of malaria-causing parasites, especially in low transmission settings or in places where arboviruses co-circulate. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-019-3610-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana L Ramírez
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, PO Box 6811, Cairns, QLD, 4870, Australia. .,Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, PO Box 6811, Cairns, QLD, 4870, Australia.
| | - Andrew F van den Hurk
- Public Health Virology, Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, Coopers Plains, QLD, 4108, Australia
| | - Ian M Mackay
- Public Health Virology, Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, Coopers Plains, QLD, 4108, Australia
| | - Annie S P Yang
- Infection and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Microbiology Parasitology, Radboud University Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein 28, Microbiology 268, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Glen R Hewitson
- Public Health Virology, Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, Coopers Plains, QLD, 4108, Australia
| | - Jamie L McMahon
- Public Health Virology, Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, Coopers Plains, QLD, 4108, Australia
| | - Justin A Boddey
- Infection and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Scott A Ritchie
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, PO Box 6811, Cairns, QLD, 4870, Australia.,Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, PO Box 6811, Cairns, QLD, 4870, Australia
| | - Sara M Erickson
- Infection and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
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Yan Y, Hillyer JF. Complement-like proteins TEP1, TEP3 and TEP4 are positive regulators of periostial hemocyte aggregation in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 107:1-9. [PMID: 30690067 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2019.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The mosquito immune and circulatory systems are functionally integrated. During an infection, hemocytes aggregate around the ostia (valves) of the dorsal vessel - areas of the heart called the periostial regions - where they phagocytose live and melanized pathogens. Although periostial hemocyte aggregation is an immune response that occurs following infection with bacteria and malaria parasites, the molecular basis of this process remains poorly understood. Here, we show that the thioester-containing proteins, TEP1, TEP3 and TEP4 are positive regulators of periostial hemocyte aggregation in the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. RNAi-based knockdown of TEP1, TEP3 and TEP4 resulted in fewer periostial hemocytes following Escherichia coli infection, without affecting the adjacent population of non-periostial, sessile hemocytes. Moreover, knockdown of TEP1, TEP3 and TEP4 expression resulted in reduced bacterial accumulation and melanin deposition at the periostial regions. Finally, this study confirmed the role that TEP1 plays in reducing infection intensity in the hemocoel. Overall, this research shows that the complement-like proteins, TEP1, TEP3 and TEP4, are positive regulators of the functional integration between the immune and circulatory systems of mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Yan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Julián F Hillyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
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36
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See-through observation of malaria parasite behaviors in the mosquito vector. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1768. [PMID: 30742010 PMCID: PMC6370880 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-38529-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Although it is known that malaria parasites proliferate in the midgut of mosquito vector, their detailed behaviors, from gamete maturation to formation of next generation sporozoite, have not been fully understood at cellular or molecular level. This is mainly attributed to technical difficulties of dissection and whole-mount observation, of delicate and opaque mosquito body contents. In addition, blood pigment surrounding parasites immediately after blood meal also complicates tracing mosquito-stage parasites. Recent revolutionary studies have overcome such negative factors in tissue observation by clearing organisms. CUBIC reagents succeeded to remove both light scattering and blood pigment from various mouse tissues, and to whole-organ image fluorescence-labeled cell structures. In this study, we utilized the advanced version of CUBIC technology and high sensitivity fluorescent markers for see-through observation of mosquito vector after engulfment of rodent malaria parasites to clarify their behaviors during mosquito stage. As a result, we succeeded to visualize oocysts, sporozoites, female gametes and ookinetes in the mosquito bodies without any dissection.
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Jenwithisuk R, Kangwanrangsan N, Tachibana M, Thongkukiatkul A, Otsuki H, Sattabongkot J, Tsuboi T, Torii M, Ishino T. Identification of a PH domain-containing protein which is localized to crystalloid bodies of Plasmodium ookinetes. Malar J 2018; 17:466. [PMID: 30545367 PMCID: PMC6291999 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-018-2617-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background For the success of the malaria control and eradication programme it is essential to reduce parasite transmission by mosquito vectors. In the midguts of mosquitoes fed with parasite-infected blood, sexual-stage parasites fertilize to develop into motile ookinetes that traverse midgut epithelial cells and reside adjacent the basal lamina. Therefore, the ookinete is a promising target of transmission-blocking vaccines to break the parasite lifecycle in mosquito vectors. However, the molecular mechanisms of ookinete formation and invasion of epithelial cells have not been fully elucidated. A unique structure called the crystalloid body has been identified in the ookinete cytoplasm by electron microscopy, but its biological functions remain unclear. Methods A recombinant protein of a novel molecule, designated as crystalloid body specific PH domain-containing protein of Plasmodium yoelii (PyCryPH), was synthesized using a wheat germ cell-free system. Specific rabbit antibodies against PyCryPH were obtained to characterize the expression and localization of PyCryPH during sexual-stage parasite development. In addition, PyCryPH knockout parasites were generated by targeted gene disruption to examine PyCryPH function in mosquito-stage parasite development. Results Western blot and immunofluorescence assays using specific antibodies showed that PyCryPH is specifically expressed in zygotes and ookinetes. By immunoelectron microscopy it was demonstrated that PyCryPH is localized within crystalloid bodies. Parasites with a disrupted PyCryPH gene developed normally into ookinetes and formed oocysts on the basal lamina of midguts. In addition, the number of sporozoites residing in salivary glands was comparable to that of wild-type parasites. Conclusions CryPH, containing a signal peptide and PH domain, is predominantly expressed in zygotes and ookinetes and is localized to crystalloid bodies in P. yoelii. CryPH accumulates in vesicle-like structures prior to the appearance of typical crystalloid bodies. Unlike other known crystalloid body localized proteins, CryPH does not appear to have a multiple domain architecture characteristic of the LAP/CCp family proteins. Although CryPH is highly conserved among Plasmodium, Babesia, Theileria, and Cryptosporidium, PyCryPH is dispensable for the development of invasive ookinetes and sporozoites in mosquito bodies. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12936-018-2617-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachaneeporn Jenwithisuk
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, 791-0295, Japan.,Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Niwat Kangwanrangsan
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Mayumi Tachibana
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, 791-0295, Japan
| | - Amporn Thongkukiatkul
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, 20131, Thailand
| | - Hitoshi Otsuki
- Division of Medical Zoology, Faculty of Medicine, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori, 683-8503, Japan
| | - Jetsumon Sattabongkot
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Takafumi Tsuboi
- Division of Malaria Research, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Ehime, 790-8577, Japan
| | - Motomi Torii
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, 791-0295, Japan
| | - Tomoko Ishino
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, 791-0295, Japan.
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38
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Menze BD, Wondji MJ, Tchapga W, Tchoupo M, Riveron JM, Wondji CS. Bionomics and insecticides resistance profiling of malaria vectors at a selected site for experimental hut trials in central Cameroon. Malar J 2018; 17:317. [PMID: 30165863 PMCID: PMC6117958 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-018-2467-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Malaria vectors are increasingly developing resistance to insecticides across Africa. The impact of such resistance on the continued effectiveness of insecticide-based interventions remains unclear due to poor characterization of vector populations. This study reports the characterization of malaria vectors at Mibellon, a selected site in Cameroon for experimental hut study, including species composition, Plasmodium infection rate, resistance profiles and mechanisms. Methods Indoor resting blood-fed Anopheles mosquitoes were collected from houses at Mibellon in 2017 and forced to lay eggs to generate F1 adult mosquitoes. Insecticides susceptibility bioassays were performed on the F1 adult mosquitoes following the WHO protocol to assess resistance profile to insecticides. The molecular basis of resistance and Plasmodium infection rate were investigated using TaqMan genotyping. Results Anopheles funestus sensu stricto (s.s.) was predominant in Mibellon (80%) followed by Anopheles gambiae s.s. (20%). High levels of resistance to pyrethroids and organochlorides were observed for both species. Moderate resistance was observed against bendiocarb (carbamate) in both species, but relatively higher in An. gambiae s.s. In contrast, full susceptibility was recorded for the organophosphate malathion. The PBO synergist assays with permethrin and deltamethrin revealed a significant recovery of the susceptibility in Anopheles funestus s.s. population (48.8 to 98.1% mortality and 38.3 to 96.5% mortality, respectively). The DDT/pyrethroid 119F-GSTe2 resistant allele (28.1%) and the dieldrin 296S-RDL resistant (9.7%) were detected in An. funestus s.s. The high pyrethroid/DDT resistance in An. gambiae correlated with the high frequency of 1014F knockdown resistance allele (63.9%). The 1014S-kdr allele was detected at low frequency (1.97%). The Plasmodium infection rate was 20% in An. gambiae, whereas An. funestus exhibited an oocyst rate of 15 and 5% for the sporozoite rate. Conclusion These results highlight the increasing spread of insecticide resistance and the challenges that control programmes face to maintain the continued effectiveness of insecticide-based interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin D Menze
- Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK. .,LSTM Research Unit at the Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), P.O. Box 13591, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
| | - Murielle J Wondji
- Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.,LSTM Research Unit at the Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), P.O. Box 13591, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - William Tchapga
- LSTM Research Unit at the Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), P.O. Box 13591, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Micareme Tchoupo
- LSTM Research Unit at the Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), P.O. Box 13591, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Jacob M Riveron
- Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.,LSTM Research Unit at the Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), P.O. Box 13591, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Charles S Wondji
- Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK. .,LSTM Research Unit at the Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), P.O. Box 13591, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
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Sigle LT, Hillyer JF. Mosquito Hemocytes Associate With Circulatory Structures That Support Intracardiac Retrograde Hemolymph Flow. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1187. [PMID: 30210361 PMCID: PMC6121077 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
A powerful immune system protects mosquitoes from pathogens and influences their ability to transmit disease. The mosquito's immune and circulatory systems are functionally integrated, whereby intense immune processes occur in areas of high hemolymph flow. The primary circulatory organ of mosquitoes is the dorsal vessel, which consists of a thoracic aorta and an abdominal heart. In adults of the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, the heart periodically alternates contraction direction, resulting in intracardiac hemolymph flowing toward the head (anterograde) and toward the posterior of the abdomen (retrograde). During anterograde contractions, hemolymph enters the dorsal vessel through ostia located in abdominal segments 2-7, and exits through an excurrent opening located in the head. During retrograde contractions, hemolymph enters the dorsal vessel through ostia located at the thoraco-abdominal junction, and exits through posterior excurrent openings located in the eighth abdominal segment. The ostia in abdominal segments 2 to 7-which function in anterograde intracardiac flow-are sites of intense immune activity, as a subset of hemocytes, called periostial hemocytes, respond to infection by aggregating, phagocytosing, and killing pathogens. Here, we assessed whether hemocytes are present and active at two sites important for retrograde intracardiac hemolymph flow: the thoraco-abdominal ostia and the posterior excurrent openings of the heart. We detected sessile hemocytes around both of these structures, and these hemocytes readily engage in phagocytosis. However, they are few in number and a bacterial infection does not induce the aggregation of additional hemocytes at these locations. Finally, we describe the process of hemocyte attachment and detachment to regions of the dorsal vessel involved in intracardiac retrograde flow.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julián F. Hillyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
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40
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Kumar A, Srivastava P, Sirisena P, Dubey SK, Kumar R, Shrinet J, Sunil S. Mosquito Innate Immunity. INSECTS 2018; 9:insects9030095. [PMID: 30096752 PMCID: PMC6165528 DOI: 10.3390/insects9030095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2018] [Revised: 06/17/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Mosquitoes live under the endless threat of infections from different kinds of pathogens such as bacteria, parasites, and viruses. The mosquito defends itself by employing both physical and physiological barriers that resist the entry of the pathogen and the subsequent establishment of the pathogen within the mosquito. However, if the pathogen does gain entry into the insect, the insect mounts a vigorous innate cellular and humoral immune response against the pathogen, thereby limiting the pathogen's propagation to nonpathogenic levels. This happens through three major mechanisms: phagocytosis, melanization, and lysis. During these processes, various signaling pathways that engage intense mosquito⁻pathogen interactions are activated. A critical overview of the mosquito immune system and latest information about the interaction between mosquitoes and pathogens are provided in this review. The conserved, innate immune pathways and specific anti-pathogenic strategies in mosquito midgut, hemolymph, salivary gland, and neural tissues for the control of pathogen propagation are discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankit Kumar
- Vector Borne Diseases Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), New Delhi-110067, India.
| | - Priyanshu Srivastava
- Vector Borne Diseases Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), New Delhi-110067, India.
| | - Pdnn Sirisena
- Vector Borne Diseases Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), New Delhi-110067, India.
| | - Sunil Kumar Dubey
- Vector Borne Diseases Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), New Delhi-110067, India.
| | - Ramesh Kumar
- Vector Borne Diseases Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), New Delhi-110067, India.
| | - Jatin Shrinet
- Vector Borne Diseases Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), New Delhi-110067, India.
| | - Sujatha Sunil
- Vector Borne Diseases Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), New Delhi-110067, India.
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Brugman VA, Kristan M, Gibbins MP, Angrisano F, Sala KA, Dessens JT, Blagborough AM, Walker T. Detection of malaria sporozoites expelled during mosquito sugar feeding. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7545. [PMID: 29765136 PMCID: PMC5954146 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-26010-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a severe disease of global importance transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. The ability to rapidly detect the presence of infectious mosquitoes able to transmit malaria is of vital importance for surveillance, control and elimination efforts. Current methods principally rely on large-scale mosquito collections followed by labour-intensive salivary gland dissections or enzyme-linked immunosorbent (ELISA) methods to detect sporozoites. Using forced salivation, we demonstrate here that Anopheles mosquitoes infected with Plasmodium expel sporozoites during sugar feeding. Expelled sporozoites can be detected on two sugar-soaked substrates, cotton wool and Whatman FTA cards, and sporozoite DNA is detectable using real-time PCR. These results demonstrate a simple and rapid methodology for detecting the presence of infectious mosquitoes with sporozoites and highlight potential laboratory applications for investigating mosquito-malaria interactions. Our results indicate that FTA cards could be used as a simple, effective and economical tool in enhancing field surveillance activities for malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- V A Brugman
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK.
- Evolution Biotechnologies, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, Bedford, MK44 1LZ, UK.
| | - M Kristan
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - M P Gibbins
- Department of Immunology and Infection, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - F Angrisano
- Department of Life Sciences, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Imperial College London, Imperial College Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - K A Sala
- Department of Life Sciences, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Imperial College London, Imperial College Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - J T Dessens
- Department of Pathogen Molecular Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - A M Blagborough
- Department of Life Sciences, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Imperial College London, Imperial College Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - T Walker
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
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Bartholomay LC, Michel K. Mosquito Immunobiology: The Intersection of Vector Health and Vector Competence. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 63:145-167. [PMID: 29324042 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-010715-023530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
As holometabolous insects that occupy distinct aquatic and terrestrial environments in larval and adult stages and utilize hematophagy for nutrient acquisition, mosquitoes are subjected to a wide variety of symbiotic interactions. Indeed, mosquitoes play host to endosymbiotic, entomopathogenic, and mosquito-borne organisms, including protozoa, viruses, bacteria, fungi, fungal-like organisms, and metazoans, all of which trigger and shape innate infection-response capacity. Depending on the infection or interaction, the mosquito may employ, for example, cellular and humoral immune effectors for septic infections in the hemocoel, humoral infection responses in the midgut lumen, and RNA interference and programmed cell death for intracellular pathogens. These responses often function in concert, regardless of the infection type, and provide a robust front to combat infection. Mosquito-borne pathogens and entomopathogens overcome these immune responses, employing avoidance or suppression strategies. Burgeoning methodologies are capitalizing on this concerted deployment of immune responses to control mosquito-borne disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyric C Bartholomay
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin 53706;
| | - Kristin Michel
- Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506;
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Doran CR, Estévez-Lao TY, Hillyer JF. Mosquito aging modulates the heart rate and the proportional directionality of heart contractions. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 101:47-56. [PMID: 28655496 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Mosquito aging impacts a myriad of physiological processes, including digestion, flight, mating, reproductive success, and immunity. In the present study, we conducted intravital video imaging in 1, 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20-day-old Anopheles gambiae female adults to assess whether aging impacts mosquito heart physiology. We found that the heart contraction rate increases over the first 15days of adulthood and then decreases. These changes occur for both contraction directions, although aging results in a relative change in the anterograde versus retrograde contraction rates. That is, whereas for the first 5days of life the anterograde and retrograde contraction rates are similar, from day 10 to day 20 the retrograde contraction rate is higher than the anterograde contraction rate. Aging also biases the proportional directionality of heart contractions, from approximately two thirds of the time being spent contracting in the anterograde direction and two thirds of the contractions propagating anterograde during the first 5days of life to an approximately even split between anterograde and retrograde when the mosquitoes have reached 10 to 20days of age. Transcriptional analyses of crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP), FMRFamide, calcium-calmodulin dependent kinase II (CaMKII), pygopus, manganese-iron superoxide dismutase (MnSOD1) and vinculin by quantitative RT-PCR revealed age-associated changes in gene expression, with MnSOD1 and vinculin expression showing a declining trend with age. RNAi-based knockdown of MnSOD1 or vinculin resulted in heart physiology that trended toward the aging phenotype for every parameter that was measured, suggesting that these two genes are involved in cardiac aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte R Doran
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Tania Y Estévez-Lao
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Julián F Hillyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
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Whitten MMA, Coates CJ. Re-evaluation of insect melanogenesis research: Views from the dark side. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2017; 30:386-401. [PMID: 28378380 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 03/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Melanins (eumelanin and pheomelanin) are synthesized in insects for several purposes including cuticle sclerotization and color patterning, clot formation, organogenesis, and innate immunity. Traditional views of insect immunity detail the storage of pro-phenoloxidases inside specialized blood cells (hemocytes) and their release upon recognition of foreign bodies. Activated phenoloxidases convert monophenols into reactive quinones in a two-step enzymatic reaction, and until recently, the mechanism of tyrosine hydroxylation remained a mystery. Herein, we present our interpretations of these enzyme-substrate complexes. The resultant melanins are deposited onto the surface of microbes to immobilize, agglutinate, and suffocate them. Phenoloxidase activity and melanin production are not limited to the blood (hemolymph) or cuticle, as recent evidence points to more diverse, sophisticated interactions in the gut and with the resident symbionts. This review offers insight into the somewhat neglected areas of insect melanogenesis research, particularly in innate immunity, its role in beneficial insects such as pollinators, the functional versatility of phenoloxidases, and the limitations of common experimental approaches that may impede progress inadvertently.
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Schmid S, Dinkel A, Mackenstedt U, Tantely ML, Randrianambinintsoa FJ, Boyer S, Woog F. Avian malaria on Madagascar: bird hosts and putative vector mosquitoes of different Plasmodium lineages. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:6. [PMID: 28057063 PMCID: PMC5217334 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1939-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 12/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Avian malaria occurs almost worldwide and is caused by Haemosporida parasites (Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon). Vectors such as mosquitoes, hippoboscid flies or biting midges are required for the transmission of these parasites. There are few studies about avian malaria parasites on Madagascar but none about suitable vectors. Methods To identify vectors of avian Plasmodium parasites on Madagascar, we examined head, thorax and abdomen of 418 mosquitoes from at least 18 species using a nested PCR method to amplify a 524 bp fragment of the haemosporidian mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Sequences obtained were then compared with a large dataset of haemosporidian sequences detected in 45 different bird species (n = 686) from the same area in the Maromizaha rainforest. Results Twenty-one mosquitoes tested positive for avian malaria parasites. Haemoproteus DNA was found in nine mosquitoes (2.15%) while Plasmodium DNA was found in 12 mosquitoes (2.87%). Seven distinct lineages were identified among the Plasmodium DNA samples. Some lineages were also found in the examined bird samples: Plasmodium sp. WA46 (EU810628.1) in the Madagascar bulbul, Plasmodium sp. mosquito 132 (AB308050.1) in 15 bird species belonging to eight families, Plasmodium sp. PV12 (GQ150194.1) in eleven bird species belonging to eight families and Plasmodium sp. P31 (DQ839060.1) was found in three weaver bird species. Conclusion This study provides the first insight into avian malaria transmission in the Maromizaha rainforest in eastern Madagascar. Five Haemoproteus lineages and seven Plasmodium lineages were detected in the examined mosquitoes. Complete life-cycles for the specialist lineages WA46 and P31 and for the generalist lineages mosquito132 and PV12 of Plasmodium are proposed. In addition, we have identified for the first time Anopheles mascarensis and Uranotaenia spp. as vectors for avian malaria and offer the first description of vector mosquitoes for avian malaria in Madagascar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandrine Schmid
- Universität Hohenheim, Institut für Zoologie, FG Parasitologie, Emil-Wolff-Straße 34, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Anke Dinkel
- Universität Hohenheim, Institut für Zoologie, FG Parasitologie, Emil-Wolff-Straße 34, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Ute Mackenstedt
- Universität Hohenheim, Institut für Zoologie, FG Parasitologie, Emil-Wolff-Straße 34, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Michaël Luciano Tantely
- Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Unité d'Entomologie Médicale, BP 1274 Avaradoha, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar
| | | | - Sébastien Boyer
- Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Unité d'Entomologie Médicale, BP 1274 Avaradoha, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar
| | - Friederike Woog
- Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde,Ornithology, Rosenstein1, 70191, Stuttgart, Germany
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League GP, Hillyer JF. Functional integration of the circulatory, immune, and respiratory systems in mosquito larvae: pathogen killing in the hemocyte-rich tracheal tufts. BMC Biol 2016; 14:78. [PMID: 27643786 PMCID: PMC5027632 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-016-0305-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND As both larvae and adults, mosquitoes encounter a barrage of immune insults, ranging from microbe-rich communities in larval habitats to ingested blood-borne pathogens in adult blood meals. Given that mosquito adults have evolved an efficient means of eliminating infections in their hemocoel (body cavity) via the coordinated action of their immune and circulatory systems, the goal of the present study was to determine whether such functional integration is also present in larvae. RESULTS By fluorescently labeling hemocytes (immune cells), pericardial cells, and the heart, we discovered that fourth instar larvae, unlike adults, contain segmental hemocytes but lack the periostial hemocytes that surround the ostia (heart valves) in abdominal segments 2-7. Instead, larvae contain an abundance of sessile hemocytes at the tracheal tufts, which are respiratory structures that are unique to larvae, are located in the posterior-most abdominal segment, and surround what in larvae are the sole incurrent openings for hemolymph entry into the heart. Injection of fluorescent immune elicitors and bacteria into the larval hemocoel then showed that tracheal tuft hemocytes mount rapid and robust immune responses against foreign insults. Indeed, green fluorescent protein-labeled Escherichia coli flowing with the hemolymph rapidly aggregate exclusively at the tracheal tufts, where they are killed within 24 h post-infection via both phagocytosis and melanization. CONCLUSION Together, these findings show that the functional integration of the circulatory, respiratory, and immune systems of mosquitoes varies drastically across life stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett P League
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, VU Station B 35-1634, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA
| | - Julián F Hillyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, VU Station B 35-1634, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
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Species-specific escape of Plasmodium sporozoites from oocysts of avian, rodent, and human malarial parasites. Malar J 2016; 15:394. [PMID: 27480269 PMCID: PMC4969971 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-016-1451-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Malaria is transmitted when an infected mosquito delivers Plasmodium sporozoites into a vertebrate host. There are many species of Plasmodium and, in general, the infection is host-specific. For example, Plasmodium gallinaceum is an avian parasite, while Plasmodium berghei infects mice. These two parasites have been extensively used as experimental models of malaria transmission. Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax are the most important agents of human malaria, a life-threatening disease of global importance. To complete their life cycle, Plasmodium parasites must traverse the mosquito midgut and form an oocyst that will divide continuously. Mature oocysts release thousands of sporozoites into the mosquito haemolymph that must reach the salivary gland to infect a new vertebrate host. The current understanding of the biology of oocyst formation and sporozoite release is mostly based on experimental infections with P.berghei, and the conclusions are generalized to other Plasmodium species that infect humans without further morphological analyses. Results Here, it is described the microanatomy of sporozoite escape from oocysts of four Plasmodium species: the two laboratory models, P. gallinaceum and P. berghei, and the two main species that cause malaria in humans, P.vivax and P. falciparum. It was found that sporozoites have species-specific mechanisms of escape from the oocyst. The two model species of Plasmodium had a common mechanism, in which the oocyst wall breaks down before sporozoites emerge. In contrast, P. vivax and P. falciparum sporozoites show a dynamic escape mechanism from the oocyst via polarized propulsion. Conclusions This study demonstrated that Plasmodium species do not share a common mechanism of sporozoite escape, as previously thought, but show complex and species-specific mechanisms. In addition, the knowledge of this phenomenon in human Plasmodium can facilitate transmission-blocking studies and not those ones only based on the murine and avian models.
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Hopp CS, Balaban AE, Bushell ESC, Billker O, Rayner JC, Sinnis P. Palmitoyl transferases have critical roles in the development of mosquito and liver stages of Plasmodium. Cell Microbiol 2016; 18:1625-1641. [PMID: 27084458 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
As the Plasmodium parasite transitions between mammalian and mosquito host, it has to adjust quickly to new environments. Palmitoylation, a reversible and dynamic lipid post-translational modification, plays a central role in regulating this process and has been implicated with functions for parasite morphology, motility and host cell invasion. While proteins associated with the gliding motility machinery have been described to be palmitoylated, no palmitoyl transferase responsible for regulating gliding motility has previously been identified. Here, we characterize two palmityol transferases with gene tagging and gene deletion approaches. We identify DHHC3, a palmitoyl transferase, as a mediator of ookinete development, with a crucial role for gliding motility in ookinetes and sporozoites, and we co-localize the protein with a marker for the inner membrane complex in the ookinete stage. Ookinetes and sporozoites lacking DHHC3 are impaired in gliding motility and exhibit a strong phenotype in vivo; with ookinetes being significantly less infectious to their mosquito host and sporozoites being non-infectious to mice. Importantly, genetic complementation of the DHHC3-ko parasite completely restored virulence. We generated parasites lacking both DHHC3, as well as the palmitoyl transferase DHHC9, and found an enhanced phenotype for these double knockout parasites, allowing insights into the functional overlap and compensational nature of the large family of PbDHHCs. These findings contribute to our understanding of the organization and mechanism of the gliding motility machinery, which as is becoming increasingly clear, is mediated by palmitoylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine S Hopp
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA. .,Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, CB10 1SA, UK.
| | - Amanda E Balaban
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | | | | | | | - Photini Sinnis
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
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Hillyer JF. Insect immunology and hematopoiesis. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 58:102-18. [PMID: 26695127 PMCID: PMC4775421 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2015.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Revised: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Insects combat infection by mounting powerful immune responses that are mediated by hemocytes, the fat body, the midgut, the salivary glands and other tissues. Foreign organisms that have entered the body of an insect are recognized by the immune system when pathogen-associated molecular patterns bind host-derived pattern recognition receptors. This, in turn, activates immune signaling pathways that amplify the immune response, induce the production of factors with antimicrobial activity, and activate effector pathways. Among the immune signaling pathways are the Toll, Imd, Jak/Stat, JNK, and insulin pathways. Activation of these and other pathways leads to pathogen killing via phagocytosis, melanization, cellular encapsulation, nodulation, lysis, RNAi-mediated virus destruction, autophagy and apoptosis. This review details these and other aspects of immunity in insects, and discusses how the immune and circulatory systems have co-adapted to combat infection, how hemocyte replication and differentiation takes place (hematopoiesis), how an infection prepares an insect for a subsequent infection (immune priming), how environmental factors such as temperature and the age of the insect impact the immune response, and how social immunity protects entire groups. Finally, this review highlights some underexplored areas in the field of insect immunobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julián F Hillyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, VU Station B 35-1634, Nashville, TN 37235, USA.
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Kakani P, Suman S, Gupta L, Kumar S. Ambivalent Outcomes of Cell Apoptosis: A Barrier or Blessing in Malaria Progression. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:302. [PMID: 27014225 PMCID: PMC4791532 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The life cycle of Plasmodium in two evolutionary distant hosts, mosquito, and human, is a complex process. It is regulated at various stages of developments by a number of diverged mechanisms that ultimately determine the outcome of the disease. During the development processes, Plasmodium invades a variety of cells in two hosts. The invaded cells tend to undergo apoptosis and are subsequently removed from the system. This process also eliminates numerous parasites along with these apoptotic cells as a part of innate defense against the invaders. Plasmodium should escape the invaded cell before it undergoes apoptosis or it should manipulate host cell apoptosis for its survival. Interestingly, both these phenomena are evident in Plasmodium at different stages of development. In addition, the parasite also exhibits altruistic behavior and triggers its own killing for the selection of the best ‘fit’ progeny, removal of the ‘unfit’ parasites to conserve the nutrients and to support the host survival. Thus, the outcomes of cell apoptosis are ambivalent, favorable as well as unfavorable during malaria progression. Here we discuss that the manipulation of host cell apoptosis might be helpful in the regulation of Plasmodium development and will open new frontiers in the field of malaria research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parik Kakani
- Molecular Parasitology and Vector Biology Lab, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
| | - Sneha Suman
- Molecular Parasitology and Vector Biology Lab, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
| | - Lalita Gupta
- Molecular Parasitology and Vector Biology Lab, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
| | - Sanjeev Kumar
- Molecular Parasitology and Vector Biology Lab, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
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