Synthesis, characterization and evaluation of computationally designed nanoparticles of molecular imprinted polymers as drug delivery systems

Molecularly Imprinted Polymers in the Analysis of Chlorogenic Acid: A review

Chlorogenic acid, a phenolic compound, is prevalent across various plant species and has been known for its pharmacological advantages. Health care experts have identified chlorogenic acid as a potential biomarker for treatment of a wide range of illnesses. Therefore, achieving efficient extraction and analysis of chlorogenic acid from plants and their products has become essential. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are highly effective adsorbent for the extraction of chlorogenic acid from complex matrices. Currently, there is a lack of comprehensive review article that consolidate the methods utilized for the purification of chlorogenic acid through molecular imprinting. In this context, we have surveyed the common approaches employed in preparing MIPs specifically designed for the analysis of chlorogenic acid, including both conventional and newly developed. This review discusses the advantages, limitations of polymerization techniques and proposed strategies to produce more efficient MIPs for chlorogenic acid enrichment in complex samples. Additionaly, we present advanced imprinting methods for designing MIPs, which improve the adsorption capacity, sensitivity and selectivity towards chlorogenic acid.

Silicon-containing nanomedicine and biomaterials: materials chemistry, multi-dimensional design, and biomedical application

The invention of silica-based bioactive glass in the late 1960s has sparked significant interest in exploring a wide range of silicon-containing biomaterials from the macroscale to the nanoscale. Over the past few decades, these biomaterials have been extensively explored for their potential in diverse biomedical applications, considering their remarkable bioactivity, excellent biocompatibility, facile surface functionalization, controllable synthesis, etc. However, to expedite the clinical translation and the unexpected utilization of silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials, it is highly desirable to achieve a thorough comprehension of their characteristics and biological effects from an overall perspective. In this review, we provide a comprehensive discussion on the state-of-the-art progress of silicon-composed biomaterials, including their classification, characteristics, fabrication methods, and versatile biomedical applications. Additionally, we highlight the multi-dimensional design of both pure and hybrid silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials and their intrinsic biological effects and interactions with biological systems. Their extensive biomedical applications span from drug delivery and bioimaging to therapeutic interventions and regenerative medicine, showcasing the significance of their rational design and fabrication to meet specific requirements and optimize their theranostic performance. Additionally, we offer insights into the future prospects and potential challenges regarding silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials. By shedding light on these exciting research advances, we aspire to foster further progress in the biomedical field and drive the development of innovative silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials with transformative applications in biomedicine.

Molecularly imprinted polymers: preparation, characterisation, and application in drug delivery systems

Molecular imprinting technology defines the creation of molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) molecules in which template molecules can place in a key-lock relationship through shape, diameter, and functional groups. Although molecular imprinting technology has been employed in different fields, its applications in drug delivery systems (DDSs) have gained momentum recently. The high loading efficiency, high stability, and controlled drug release are the primary advantages of MIPs. Here, the main components, preparation methods, and characterisation tests of MIPs are summarised, and their applications in DDSs administered by different routes are evaluated in detail. The review offers a perspective on molecular imprinting technology and applications of MIPs in drug delivery by surveying the literature approximately 1998-2021 together with the outlined prospects.

Graphene-Based Femtogram-Level Sensitive Molecularly Imprinted Polymer of SARS-CoV-2

Rapid distribution of viral-induced diseases and weaknesses of common diagnostic platforms for accurate and sensitive identification of infected people raises an urgent demand for the design and fabrication of biosensors capable of early detection of viral biomarkers with high specificity. Accordingly, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) as artificial antibodies prove to be an ideal preliminary detection platform for specific identification of target templates, with superior sensitivity and detection limit (DL). MIPs detect the target template with the "lock and key" mechanism, the same as natural monoclonal antibodies, and present ideal stability at ambient temperature, which improves their practicality for real applications. Herein, a 2D MIP platform consisting of decorated graphene oxide with the interconnected complex of polypyrrole-boronic acid is developed that can detect the trace of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) antigen in aquatic biological samples with ultrahigh sensitivity/specificity with DL of 0.326 and 11.32 fg mL^-1 using voltammetric and amperometric assays, respectively. Additionally, the developed MIP shows remarkable stability, selectivity, and accuracy toward detecting the target template, which paves the way for developing ultraspecific and prompt screening diagnostic configurations capable of detecting the antigen in 1 min or 20 s using voltammetric or amperometric techniques.

Elucidating doxycycline loading and release performance of imprinted hydrogels with different cross-linker concentrations: a computational and experimental study

Effective non-covalent molecular imprinting on a polymer depends on the extent of non-bonded interactions between the template and other molecules before polymerization. Here, we first determine functional monomers that can yield a doxycycline-imprinted hydrogel based on the hydrogen bond interactions at the prepolymerization step, revealed by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, molecular docking, and simulated annealing methods. Then, acrylic acid (AA)-based doxycycline (DOX) imprinted (MIP) and non-imprinted (NIP) hydrogels are synthesized in cross-linker ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) ratios of 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 3.0 mol%. Here, molecularly imprinted polymer with 3.0 mol% EGDMA has the highest imprinting factor (1.58) and best controlled drug release performance. At this point, full-atom MD simulations of DOX–AA solutions at different EGDMA concentrations reveal that AA and EGDMA compete to interact with DOX. However, at 3.0 mol% EGDMA, AA attains numerous stable hydrogen bond interactions with the drug. This study demonstrates that the concentration of the cross-linker and functional monomer can be adjusted to increase the success of imprinting, where the interplay between these two parameters can be successfully revealed by MD simulations.

Developments of Smart Drug-Delivery Systems Based on Magnetic Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Targeted Cancer Therapy: A Short Review

Cancer therapy is still a huge challenge, as especially chemotherapy shows several drawbacks like low specificity to tumor cells, rapid elimination of drugs, high toxicity and lack of aqueous solubility. The combination of molecular imprinting technology with magnetic nanoparticles provides a new class of smart hybrids, i.e., magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers (MMIPs) to overcome limitations in current cancer therapy. The application of these complexes is gaining more interest in therapy, due to their favorable properties, namely, the ability to be guided and to generate slight hyperthermia with an appropriate external magnetic field, alongside the high selectivity and loading capacity of imprinted polymers toward a template molecule. In cancer therapy, using the MMIPs as smart-drug-delivery robots can be a promising alternative to conventional direct administered chemotherapy, aiming to enhance drug accumulation/penetration into the tumors while fewer side effects on the other organs. Overview: In this review, we state the necessity of further studies to translate the anticancer drug-delivery systems into clinical applications with high efficiency. This work relates to the latest state of MMIPs as smart-drug-delivery systems aiming to be used in chemotherapy. The application of computational modeling toward selecting the optimum imprinting interaction partners is stated. The preparation methods employed in these works are summarized and their attainment in drug-loading capacity, release behavior and cytotoxicity toward cancer cells in the manner of in vitro and in vivo studies are stated. As an essential issue toward the development of a body-friendly system, the biocompatibility and toxicity of the developed drug-delivery systems are discussed. We conclude with the promising perspectives in this emerging field. Areas covered: Last ten years of publications (till June 2020) in magnetic molecularly imprinted polymeric nanoparticles for application as smart-drug-delivery systems in chemotherapy.

A highly sensitive sensor based on a computer-designed magnetic molecularly imprinted membrane for the determination of acetaminophen

In this paper, a sensor based on a magnetic surface molecularly imprinted membrane (MMIP) was prepared for the highly sensitive and selective determination of acetaminophen (AP). Before the experiment, the appropriate functional monomers and solvents required for the polymer were screened, and the molecular electrostatic potentials (MEPs) were calculated by the DFT/B3LYP/6-31 + G method. MMIP with high recognition of AP was synthesized based on Fe₃O₄@SiO₂nanoparticles (NPs) with excellent core-shell structure. Next, a carbon paste electrode (CPE) was filled with a piece of neodymium-iron-boron magnet to make magnetic electrode (MCPE), and MMIP/MCPE sensor was obtained by attaching a printed polymer to the surface of the electrode under the strong magnetic. Due to the stable molecular structure of the electrode surface, the sensor is highly effective and accurate for detection of AP using DPV. The DPV response of the sensor exhibited a linear dependence on the concentration of AP from 6 × 10^-8 to 5 × 10^-5 mol L^-1 and 5 × 10^-5 to 2 × 10^-4 mol L^-1, with a detection limit based on the lower linear range of 1.73 × 10^-8 mol L^-1(S/N = 3). When used for determination of AP in actual samples, the recovery of the sensor to the sample was 95.80-103.76%, and the RSD was 0.78%-3.05%.

Preparation and Properties of Narrowly Dispersed Polyurethane Nanocapsules Containing Essential Oil via Phase Inversion Emulsification

Narrowly dispersed polyurethane (PU) nanocapsules containing lavender essential oil (LO) were fabricated by polyaddition of toluene diisocyanate (TDI) trimer with polyol using a phase inversion emulsification technique. The particle size distribution (PSD), surface morphology, structure, encapsulation parameters, release properties, and thermal stability of nanocapsules have been characterized using a laser particle size analyzer (LPSA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectrum (FTIR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), respectively. Experimental results demonstrate that the nanocapsules have a smaller size (ca. 268 nm), regular sphericity, uniform particle size (polydispersity index, PDI = 0.078), clear core-shell structure, and smooth surface. When the ratio of LO to TDI trimer is 5:10, the yield, encapsulation efficiency, and loading capacity of the nanocapsules can reach a maximum of 70.7%, 98.6%, and 64.8%, respectively. Furthermore, the release experiments showed that the cumulative release of LO from nanocapsules was only about 17% at room temperature and about 32% at 50 °C even after 20 days.

The role of hydrophobic modification on hyaluronic acid dynamics and self-assembly

The advent of nanomedicine has rejuvenated the need for increased understanding of the fundamental physicochemical properties of polymeric amphiphiles. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a hydrophilic polysaccharide that is frequently conjugated to hydrophobic moieties and then used to entrap dyes and therapeutics. Here, we develop computational models to examine the effects of the hydrophobic modification on supramolecular behavior among three systematically designed HA derivatives substituted with alkyl chains of increasing length. Our simulations coalesce with experimentally obtained results to demonstrate the dependence of supramolecular behavior on intramolecular forces. We show that the formation of clearly defined hydrophobic domains in samples of octadecylamine-modified HA compared to HA conjugates with shorter alkyl chains is a result of more favorable hydrophobic interactions. Trends in hydrodynamic radius and polydispersity are observed in experimental results that coalesce with theoretical calculations, suggesting that supramolecular properties are dependent on the physicochemical characteristics of individual polymer strands.

In Vivo Recognition of Human Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor by Molecularly Imprinted Polymers

One of the mechanisms responsible for cancer-induced increased blood supply in malignant neoplasms is the overexpression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Several antibodies for VEGF targeting have been produced for both imaging and therapy. Molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles, nanoMIPs, however, offer significant advantages over antibodies, in particular in relation to improved stability, speed of design, cost and control over functionalization. In the present study, the successful production of nanoMIPs against human VEGF is reported for the first time. NanoMIPs were coupled with quantum dots (QDs) for cancer imaging. The composite nanoparticles exhibited specific homing toward human melanoma cell xenografts, overexpressing hVEGF, in zebrafish embryos. No evidence of this accumulation was observed in control organisms. These results indicate that nanoMIPs are promising materials which can be considered for advancing molecular oncological research, in particular when antibodies are less desirable due to their immunogenicity or long production time.

Bio-inspired virus imprinted polymer for prevention of viral infections

A novel virus-imprinted polymer for prevention of viral infection was prepared by anchoring molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) on the surface of poly-dopamine (PDA)-coated silica particles. The imprinting reaction was carried out via self-polymerization of dopamine in the presence of a virus template. Plaque forming assay indicated that the MIP exhibited selective anti-viral infection properties for the template virus in complex media containing different interfering substances, and even other types of viruses. Remarkable dose-dependent and time-dependent inhibition of virus infection was observed due to the MIP's selective binding to the template virus. When the MIP was incubated with the virus and host cells together, rapid and selective adsorption of template viruses by the MIP prevented the viruses to infect the host cells in a period of 12h. The MIP was biocompatible and non-toxic, and had excellent stability and reusability. Furthermore, the MIPs prepared using different viruses as templates showed similar anti-viral infection properties. The MIP synthesized using dopamine as monomer and crude virus as template provided an attractive possibility for clinical applications in the field of antiviral therapy.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

This is the first report to prepare artificial antibody (molecularly imprinted polymer, MIP) that can selectively prevent virus infection using dopamine self-polymerization system. Only MIP anchoring on the surface of poly-dopamine coated silica particles and polymerized using ammonium persulfate as radical initiator showed dose-dependent and time-dependent inhibition of template virus infection in complex media containing interferences and even other viruses. Viruses bond to MIP lost infectious capability. When incubated with virus and host cells, MIP rebond viruses rapidly and selectively to prevent viruses infecting host cells for 12h. The achieved MIPs were biocompatibility, non-toxicity with excellent stability and reusability, and can be used to different viruses. The bio-mimic MIPs provided an attractive prospect for clinical applications in antiviral therapy.

Naproxen conjugated mPEG-PCL micelles for dual triggered drug delivery

A conjugate of the NSAIDs drug, naproxen, with diblock methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(ε-caprolactone) (mPEG-PCL) copolymer was synthesized by the reaction of copolymer with naproxen in the presence of dicyclohexylcarbodiimide and dimethylaminopyridine. The naproxen conjugated copolymers were characterized with different techniques including (1)HNMR, FTIR, and DSC. The naproxen conjugated mPEG-PCL copolymers were self-assembled into micelles in aqueous solution. The TEM analysis revealed that the micelles had the average size of about 80 nm. The release behavior of conjugated copolymer was investigated in two different media with the pH values of 7.4 and 5.2. In vitro release study showed that the drug release rate was dependant on pH as it was higher at lower pH compared to neutral pH. Another feature of the conjugated micelles was a more sustained release profile compared to the conjugated copolymer. The kinetic of the drug release from naproxen conjugated micelles under different values of pH was also investigated by different kinetic models such as first-order, Makoid-Banakar, Weibull, Logistic, and Gompertz.

Core-shell magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers as sorbent for sulfonylurea herbicide residues

Sulfonylurea herbicides are widely used at lower dosage for controlling broad-leaf weeds and some grasses in cereals and economic crops. It is important to develop a highly efficient and selective pretreatment method for analyzing sulfonylurea herbicide residues in environments and samples from agricultural products based on magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs). The MIPs were prepared by a surface molecular imprinting technique especially using the vinyl-modified Fe3O4@SiO2 nanoparticle as the supporting matrix, bensulfuron-methyl (BSM) as the template molecule, methacrylic acid (MAA) as a functional monomer, trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate (TRIM) as a cross-linker, and azodiisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as an initiator. The MIPs show high affinity, recognition specificity, fast mass transfer rate, and efficient adsorption performance toward BSM with the adsorption capacity reaching up to 37.32 mg g(-1). Furthermore, the MIPs also showed cross-selectivity for herbicides triasulfuron (TS), prosulfuron (PS), and pyrazosulfuron-ethyl (PSE). The MIP solid phase extraction (SPE) column was easier to operate, regenerate, and retrieve compared to those of C18 SPE column. The developed method showed highly selective separation and enrichment of sulfonylurea herbicide residues, which enable its application in the pretreatment of multisulfonylurea herbicide residues.

Current trends in the development of molecularly imprinted polymers in CEC

This review focused on the developments in the field of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for CEC since 2009. New preparation techniques of MIP-based CEC, such as, portable microchip with macroporous monolithic imprinted microchannel, and low cross-linking MIPs based on liquid crystalline monomers, were discussed. Using selected cases rather than a comprehensive review of the entire field, our goal is to highlight the studies of the interest with an emphasis on recent work, and offers suggestions for future development in the field of imprinted materials for CEC separation.

Molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles for olanzapine recognition: application for solid phase extraction and sustained release

The aim of this study was to prepare efficient imprinted polymer nanoparticles from an olanzapine template for the controlled release of olanzapine as a therapeutic drug for CNS diseases.

Mesoporous molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles as a sustained release system of azithromycin

A combination of a molecular imprinting technique and precipitation polymerization was applied to develop novel azithromycin-imprinted poly(methacrylic acid-co-ethylene glycol dimethacrylate) nanoparticles for sustained release of azithromycin (AZM).

Preparation of Dufulin imprinted polymer on surface of silica gel and its application as solid-phase extraction sorbent

A new molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) based on silica-gel surface was developed using Dufulin (Duf) as a template, methacrylic acid (MAA) as a functional monomer, ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) as a crosslinker, and azodiisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as an initiator. The synthetic samples were characterized by the techniques of Fourier transmission infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Batch experiments were performed to evaluate adsorption isotherms, adsorption kinetics and selective recognition of the MIP. Binding experiments demonstrated that the MIP had a good adsorption capacity, fast mass transfer rate and high recognition selectivity to Dufulin. When the MIP was used as a solid-phase extraction (SPE) material, the recoveries of Dufulin for spiked water, soil and wheat samples were 88.98-102.16%, 85.31-99.57% and 87.84-100.19%, along with LOD of 0.0008 mg L(-1), 0.010 mg kg(-1) and 0.023 mg kg(-1), respectively. Compared with direct determination of HPLC without MIP-SPE, the highly selective separation and enrichment of Dufulin from the complex environmental media can be achieved by the newly developed molecular imprinting at the surface of silica gel.

Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a novel amphiphilic polymer RGD-PEG-Chol for target drug delivery system

An amphiphilic polymer RGD-PEG-Chol which can be produced in large scale at a very low cost has been synthesized successfully. The synthesized intermediates and final products were characterized and confirmed by ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum (¹H NMR) and Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FT-IR). The paclitaxel- (PTX-) loaded liposomes based on RGD-PEG-Chol were then prepared by film formation method. The liposomes had a size within 100 nm and significantly enhanced the cytotoxicity of paclitaxel to B16F10 cell as demonstrated by MTT test (IC₅₀ = 0.079  μg/mL of RGD-modified PTX-loaded liposomes compared to 9.57  μg/mL of free PTX). Flow cytometry analysis revealed that the cellular uptake of coumarin encapsulated in the RGD-PEG-Chol modified liposome was increased for HUVEC cells. This work provides a reasonable, facile, and economic approach to prepare peptide-modified liposome materials with controllable performances and the obtained linear RGD-modified PTX-loaded liposomes might be attractive as a drug delivery system.

Synthesis of chitosan–gelatin molecularly imprinted membranes for extraction ofl-tyrosine

CS-GEL-l-tyr MIMs were prepared in aqueous phase using CS and GEL as functional polymers. The effect of crosslinking agent, PEG concentration and imprinting molecular content were examined. The results indicated that the MIMs have special selectivity to template moleculesl-tyrosine, can effectively separatel-tyrosine from other substances in the water phase and the permeability rate was 13.42%.