Film coatings for oral colon delivery

The current state-of-the art in pharmaceutical continuous film coating - A review

In this decade, one of the major trends in the pharmaceutical industry is the adoption of continuous manufacturing. This requires the development of continuous equivalents of essential pharmaceutical processes such as film coating. The process of film coating is the last step of the processing of solid dosage forms and is critical because it determines the visual appearance of the end product, along with ensuring its stability and possibly even defining the rate of drug release. Several manufacturers advertise continuous solutions for film coating, these include semi-continuous and fully continuous appliances. State-of-the-art continuous coaters can match the throughput of continuous manufacturing lines, because largest appliances have a capacity of 1200-1500 kg/h. The paper also describes the main challenges related to continuous film coating including waste production at the beginning and end of the process and the problem caused by elastic recovery of the tablets when film coating is performed immediately after tablet compression. Lastly, we give an overview of the in-line sensors that can be used to monitor the quality of the film coated tablets, enabling real-time quality control of the process. Near-infrared and Raman spectroscopy can measure the mass gain of the tablets, while terahertz pulsed imaging and optical coherence tomography enable coating thickness measurement of individual tablets and even the characterization of intra-tablet coating thickness variability. UV imaging and machine vision can also measure coating thickness, and they are also excellent for detecting tablets with defective coating.

Development of intestinal colonic drug delivery systems for diverticular disease: A QbD approach

This study aimed to advance the development of intestinal colon-coated sustained-release matrix tablets of metronidazole for diverticulitis treatment, employing the Quality by Design (QbD) methodology. Comprehensive Risk analysis and Risk evaluation were conducted to assess the potential risks associated with Critical Material Attributes (CMA) and Critical Process Parameters (CPP). Ishikawa diagram, color-coded risk classification and the Risk Priority Number (RPN) were used as tools for risk evaluation. A Design of Experiments (DoE) was executed using a fractional factorial design, incorporating five key factors derived from the Risk analysis and Risk evaluation. Two levels and a central point were established for each factor, resulting in 28 batches of coated tablets. The manufacturing process involved direct compression, followed by a coating process using pH-dependent or time-dependent polymers. Characterization and dissolution studies were conducted on all batches, and the obtained results underwent analysis of variance (ANOVA). The findings demonstrated the robustness and reproducibility of both the direct compression and coating processes. Statistical analysis identified HPMC/chitosan ratio, blending time, coating polymer, and coating weight gain as factors significantly impacting drug release. A Design Space was established to delineate the interplay of these factors, offering insights into various combinations influencing drug release behavior. Thus, the design space for 10 % weight gain formulations includes a range of HPMC/CH ratios between 2.7-3 and mixing times between 10 and 12 min; for 20 % weight gain formulations it includes a range of HPMC/CH ratios up to 2 and mixing times between 10 and 16 min. Multiple Linear Regression between technological and biopharmaceutical variables were optimized facilitating scale-up operations. Batches with a 10 % weight increase and varied HPMC viscosity grades and coating polymers achieve ∼50 % drug release at 24 h; however, batches with a 20 % weight increase along, with either high proportions of HPMC and short blending times or low proportions of HPMC and longer blending times, achieve slow release of metronidazole. This study contributes to optimizing metronidazole colonic delivery systems, enhancing their potential efficacy in diverticulitis treatment.

Guar gum as a microbially degradable component for an oral colon delivery system based on a combination strategy: formulation and in vitro evaluation

Oral colon delivery has widely been pursued exploiting naturally occurring polysaccharides degraded by the resident microbiota. However, their hydrophilicity may hinder the targeting performance. The aim of the present study was to manufacture and evaluate a double-coated delivery system leveraging intestinal microbiota, pH, and transit time for reliable colonic release. This system comprised a tablet core, a hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) inner layer and an outer coating based on Eudragit® S and guar gum. The tablets were loaded with paracetamol, selected as a tracer drug because of the well-known analytical profile and lack of major effects on bacterial viability. The HPMC and Eudragit® S layers were applied by film-coating. Tested for in vitro release, the double-coated systems showed gastroresistance in 0.1 N HCl followed by lag phases of consistent duration in phosphate buffer pH 7.4, imparted by the HPMC layer and synergistically extended by the Eudragit® S/guar gum one. In simulated colonic fluid with fecal bacteria from an inflammatory bowel disease patient, release was faster than in the presence of β-mannanase and in control culture medium. The bacteria-containing fluid was obtained by an experimental procedure making multiple tests possible from a single sampling and processing run. Thus, the study conducted proved the feasibility of the delivery system and ability of guar gum to trigger release in the presence of colon bacteria without impairing the barrier properties of the coating. Finally, it allowed an advantageous simulated colonic fluid preparation procedure to be set up, reducing the time, costs, and complexity of testing and enhancing replicability.

Colonic Delivery of Nutrients for Sustained and Prolonged Release of Gut Peptides: A Novel Strategy for Appetite Management

Obesity is one of the major global threats to human health and risk factors for cardiometabolic diseases and certain cancers. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) plays a major role in appetite and glucose homeostasis and recently the USFDA approved GLP-1 agonists for the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes. GLP-1 is secreted from enteroendocrine L-cells in the distal part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract in response to nutrient ingestion. Endogenously released GLP-1 has a very short half-life of <2 min and most of the nutrients are absorbed before reaching the distal GI tract and colon, which hinders the use of nutritional compounds for appetite regulation. The review article focuses on nutrients that endogenously stimulate GLP-1 and peptide YY (PYY) secretion via their receptors in order to decrease appetite as preventive action. In addition, various delivery technologies such as pH-sensitive, mucoadhesive, time-dependent, and enzyme-sensitive systems for colonic targeting of nutrients delivery are described. Sustained colonic delivery of nutritional compounds could be one of the most promising approaches to prevent obesity and associated metabolic diseases by, e.g., sustained GLP-1 release.

Pharmaceutical Coating and Its Different Approaches, a Review

Coating the solid dosage form, such as tablets, is considered common, but it is a critical process that provides different characteristics to tablets. It increases the value of solid dosage form, administered orally, and thus meets diverse clinical requirements. As tablet coating is a process driven by technology, it relies on advancements in coating techniques, equipment used for the coating process, evaluation of coated tablets, and coated material used. Although different techniques were employed for coating purposes, which may be based on the use of solvents or solvent-free, each of the methods used has its advantages and disadvantages, and the techniques need continued modification too. During the process of film coating, several inter-and intra-batch uniformity of coated material on the tablets is considered a critical point that ensures the worth of the final product, particularly for those drugs that contain an active medicament in the coating layer. Meanwhile, computational modeling and experimental evaluation were actively used to predict the impact of the operational parameters on the final product quality and optimize the variables in tablet coating. The efforts produced by computational modeling or experimental evaluation not only save cost in optimizing the coating process but also saves time. This review delivers a brief review on film coating in solid dosage form, which includes tablets, with a focus on the polymers and processes used in the coating. At the end, some pharmaceutical applications were also discussed.

Clinical translation of advanced colonic drug delivery technologies

Targeted drug delivery to the colon offers a myriad of benefits, including treatment of local diseases, direct access to unique therapeutic targets and the potential for increasing systemic drug bioavailability and efficacy. Although a range of traditional colonic delivery technologies are available, these systems exhibit inconsistent drug release due to physiological variability between and within individuals, which may be further exacerbated by underlying disease states. In recent years, significant translational and commercial advances have been made with the introduction of new technologies that incorporate independent multi-stimuli release mechanisms (pH and/or microbiota-dependent release). Harnessing these advanced technologies offers new possibilities for drug delivery via the colon, including the delivery of biopharmaceuticals, vaccines, nutrients, and microbiome therapeutics for the treatment of both local and systemic diseases. This review details the latest advances in colonic drug delivery, with an emphasis on emerging therapeutic opportunities and clinical technology translation.

In Vitro Methodologies for Evaluating Colon-Targeted Pharmaceutical Products and Industry Perspectives for Their Applications

Several locally acting colon-targeted products to treat colonic diseases have been recently developed and marketed, taking advantage of gastrointestinal physiology to target delivery. Main mechanisms involve pH-dependent, time-controlled and/or enzymatic-triggered release. With site of action located before systemic circulation and troublesome colonic sampling, there is room for the introduction of meaningful in vitro methods for development, quality control (QC) and regulatory applications of these formulations. A one-size-fits-all method seems unrealistic, as the selection of experimental conditions should resemble the physiological features exploited to trigger the release. This article reviews the state of the art for bio-predictive dissolution testing of colon-targeted products. Compendial methods overlook physiological aspects, such as buffer molarity and fluid composition. These are critical for pH-dependent products and time-controlled systems containing ionizable drugs. Moreover, meaningful methods for enzymatic-triggered products including either bacteria or enzymes are completely ignored by pharmacopeias. Bio-predictive testing may accelerate the development of successful products, although this may require complex methodologies. However, for high-throughput routine testing (e.g., QC), simplified methods can be used where balance is struck between simplicity, robustness and transferability on one side and bio-predictivity on the other. Ultimately, bio-predictive methods can occupy a special niche in terms of supplementing plasma concentration data for regulatory approval.

Novel Drug Carrier: 5-Fluorouracil Formulation in Nanoporous Biogenic Mg-calcite from Blue Crab Shells-Proof of Concept

The ever-growing demand for novel, cheaper, and more effective drugs has put nanomedicine and targeted drug delivery to the forefront of scientific innovation. Owing to its porous three-dimensional (3D)-nanostructure and properties, the biogenic calcite from wasted blue crab shells is employed in the present work as a new drug carrier for 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), a drug widely used in cancer therapy. The drug solution has been loaded in the porous nanoarchitecture of the powdered biogenic material and further pelleted in tablets with a 5-FU concentration of 1.748 mg/g. Their structural and morphological properties were characterized using Raman, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy. Confocal micro-Raman spectra of tablet surface showed a typical signal of biogenic carbonate with preserved carotenoids and carotenoproteins found in the native waste shell, while the drug Raman signal was absent, indicating its adsorption in the intricate nanoporous biogenic carrier. The slow release of the drug from the newly formulated tablet was investigated by tracking the surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) signal of the tablet solution in a series of time-dependent experiments. The SERS signal quantification is achieved using the well-known SERS spectral fingerprint of 5-fluorouracil aqueous solution adsorbed on Ag nanoparticles. The proof of concept is demonstrated by quantifying the slow release of the drug through the characteristic SERS band intensity of 5-FU in a time course of 26 h. This proof of concept boosted further investigations concerning the released drug identity in simulated solutions that mimic the pH of the upper- and lower gastrointestinal tract, as well as the multiple possibilities to control porosity and composition during powdering and treatment of biogenic material, to achieve the most convenient formulation for relevant biomedical drug delivery. Nonetheless, the present results showed great promise for innovative reusing waste biogenic 3D-nanomaterials of aquatic origin as advantageous drug carriers for slow release purposes, in line with the concept of blue bioeconomy.

Targeted Drug Delivery: Trends and Perspectives

BACKGROUND

Due to various limitations in conventional drug delivery system, it is important to focus on the target-specific drug delivery system where we can deliver the drug without any degradation. Among various challenges faced by a formulation scientist, delivering the drug to its right site, in its right dose, is also an important aim. A focused drug transport aims to extend, localize, target and have a safe drug interaction with the diseased tissue.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of targeted drug delivery is to make the required amount of the drug available at its desired site of action. Drug targeting can be accomplished in a number ways that include enzyme mediation, pH-dependent release, use of special vehicles, receptor targeting among other mechanisms. Intelligently designed targeted drug delivery systems also offer the advantages of a low dose of the drug along with reduced side effects which ultimately improves patient compliance. Incidences of dose dumping and dosage form failure are negligible. A focused drug transport aims to have a safe drug interaction with the diseased tissue.

CONCLUSION

This review focuses on the available targeting techniques for delivery to the colon, brain and other sites of interest. Overall, the article should make an excellent read for the researchers in this area. Newer drug targets may be identified and exploited for successful drug targeting.

Pharmaceutical Application of Tablet Film Coating

Tablet film coating is a common but critical process providing various functionalities to tablets, thereby meeting diverse clinical needs and increasing the value of oral solid dosage forms. Tablet film coating is a technology-driven process and the evolution of coated dosage forms relies on advancements in coating technology, equipment, analytical techniques, and coating materials. Although multiple coating techniques are developed for solvent-based or solvent-free coating processes, each method has advantages and disadvantages that may require continuous technical refinement. In the film coating process, intra- and inter-batch coating uniformity of tablets is critical to ensure the quality of the final product, especially for active film coating containing active pharmaceutical ingredients in the coating layer. In addition to experimental evaluation, computational modeling is also actively pursued to predict the influence of operation parameters on the quality of the final product and optimize process variables of tablet film coating. The concerted efforts of experiments and computational modeling can save time and cost in optimizing the tablet coating process. This review provides a brief overview of tablet film coating technology and modeling approaches with a focus on recent advancements in pharmaceutical applications.

Functionalized layer-by-layer assembled film with directional 5-fluorouracil release to target colon cancer

The objective of this work was to prepare and characterize pH-sensitive capsule containing functionalized layer-by-layer (LbL) assembled polymeric film with directional drug release and evaluate its effectiveness against colon cancer. 5-Fluorouracil (5FU) loaded LbL film was prepared by sequential adsorption of chitosan and alginate polyelectrolytes. This LbL film was coated with polycaprolactone (PCL, 95% w/w) as a backing layer to restrict 5FU release on one-side. The other side constituted the folic acid conjugated chitosan layer for cancer targeting. This film was encapsulated into a gelatin capsule coated with pH-sensitive Eudragit S100. 5FU loaded LbL film was characterized for physical and mechanical properties. Mucoadhesion studies performed using excised rabbit colon showed that chitosan-side of LbL film adhered with significantly (p < 0.05) greater strength compared with PCL-side. Non-everted rat colon-sac model and open colon membrane model studies showed greater permeation of 5FU across the colon wall when adhered to chitosan-side of LbL film compared with PCL-side of the film. Cell monolayer and 3D-spheroid model studies using Caco-2 and COLO 320DM colorectal cancer cells showed significant (p < 0.05) growth inhibition by 5FU loaded LbL film compared with free 5FU solution. In conclusion, pH-sensitive capsule containing 5FU loaded LbL film can be developed to target colorectal cancer for regional drug delivery.

Development and evaluation of dapsone tablets coated for specific colon release

Objective: Drug release systems based on colonic microbiota have been explored with the use of polysaccharides, which are biodegradable. In order to modulate the release into the colon, dapsone tablets were developed, coated with Surelease^® and chondroitin sulfate (SC).Methods: The formulation was developed using the wet granulation method, in the form of 9-millimetre circular tablets. The coating was applied in a perforated basin-type coating using different proportions of Surelease^® and chondroitin sulfate. The tablets were assessed according to the criteria of mean weight, hardness, and friability. The dissolution test was performed in the dissolver IV apparatus, in media simulating the gastrointestinal system environments (pH 1.2-pH 6.0 and pH 7.2) for 420 min. The results were analyzed by statistical analysis and factorial design.Results: The results of mean weight, hardness, and friability met the pharmacopeial specifications. In the dissolution test, the results obtained demonstrated that Surelease^® is able to offer effective protection to the drug, releasing minimum rates when used at 6% or 10% of the tablet's weight gain. The experiments showed that the drug was not able to spread through the coatings manufactured exclusively with Surelease^® or even when SC was incorporated in different proportions. Only in the formulation where SC was included in the highest proportion (10%), and the weight gain of the tablet was lower (6%), the release of dapsone increased, reaching 9.5% of drug released. Through factorial planning, it was observed that the drug release rate increases when the weight gain of the tablet remains at the lower level (6%), while the amount of polysaccharide is increased (90:10).Conclusions: The data indicate that the proportion of polysaccharide for ethyl cellulose in the film and the thickness of the coating are the key parameters in controlling the release of the drug from the system.

Encapsulation of Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917 in a chitosan-alginate matrix by combining layer-by-layer assembly with CaCl2 cross-linking for an effective treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases

Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917 (EcN) has been widely shown to effectively treat inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs). Unfortunately, after oral administration, EcN viability dramatically decreases due to severe environmental factors, including low gastric pH, temperature and osmotic pressure. To address these challenges and improve oral bio-availability, this study utilized layer-by-layer assembly (LbL) and ionic cross-linking with CaCl₂ as a method of EcN encapsulation (GEcN). Upon examination, GEcN cells were shown to maintain their ability to grow and proliferate, but had a slightly longer stationary phase (10 h) relative to free EcN (4 h). When exposed to simulated gastric fluid (SGF), a higher number of GEcN cells survived up to 12 h when compared to the other groups. To assess the therapeutic effect of EcN encapsulation in vivo, a TNBS-induced colitis rat model was established. When compared with the oral administration of free EcN, GEcN exhibited a significantly enhanced anti-inflammatory effect. Furthermore, GEcN treatment showed a lower disease activity index (DAI), decreased pro-inflammatory cytokine expression (MPO, TNF-α, IL-6) and increased anti-inflammatory cytokine expression (IL-10). Additionally, rats that received GEcN had much higher ZO-1 expression levels. These results suggest that EcN encapsulation in a chitosan-alginate matrix when utilizing the LbL assembly with CaCl₂ cross-linking can improve probiotic viability in a gastric environmental and thereby offer a more effective treatment for IBDs.

α-Gluco-oligosaccharide in the research and development of a polymeric material for modified drug delivery

This research aimed to analyse the influence of the incorporation of α-gluco-oligosaccharide (GOS-α) in the formation of isolated films of different combinations of polymethyl by applying physicochemical analyses such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetry (TG) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Polymer films were prepared by evaporation associating Eudragit® RS30D with α-GOS. FTIR results confirmed the incorporation of α-GOS. The intermolecular interaction involving carbonyl and hydroxyl groups of Eudragit® with α-GOS was not detected. By TG and DSC, it was possible to detect that there were no changes in the thermal properties between the proposed combinations and the standard film. Upon SEM analysis, the appearance of pores for the association 90:10 was evidenced. Possibly, these pores act as output ports for the drug. These results sharpen the perspective of applying this material to the coating of pharmaceutical formulations of modified drug delivery.

Ampholytic and Polyelectrolytic Starch as Matrices for Controlled Drug Delivery

The potential of the polyampholytic and polyelectrolytic starch compounds as excipients for drug controlled release was investigated using various tracers differing in terms of solubility and permeability. Ampholytic trimethylaminecarboxymethylstarch (TMACMS) simultaneously carrying trimethylaminehydroxypropyl (TMA) cationic groups and carboxymethyl (CM) anionic groups was obtained in one-step synthesis in aqueous media. Trimethylaminestarch (TMAS) and carboxymethylstarch (CMS) powders were also synthesized separately and then homogenized at equal proportions in liquid phase for co-processing by spray drying (SD) to obtain polyelectrolytic complexes TMAS-CMS (SD). Similarly, equal amounts of TMAS and CMS powders were dry mixed (DM) to obtain TMAS:CMS (DM). Monolithic tablets were obtained by direct compression of excipient/API mixes with 60% or 80% drug loads. The in vitro dissolution tests showed that ampholytic (TMACMS) and co-processed TMAS-CMS (SD) with selected tracers (one from each class of Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS)), were able to control the release even at very high loading (80%). The presence of opposite charges located at adequate distances may impact the polymeric chain organisation, their self-assembling, and implicitly the control of drug release. In conclusion, irrespective of preparation procedure, ampholytic and polyelectrolytic starch materials exhibited similar behaviours. Electrostatic interactions generated polymeric matrices conferring good mechanical features of tablets even at high drug loading.

Adjustment of triple shellac coating for precise release of bioactive substances with different physico-chemical properties in the ileocolonic region

Formulations for the controlled release of substances in the human terminal ileum and colon are essential to target the gut microbiome and its interactions with the intestinal mucosa. In contrast to pharmaceutical enteric coatings, reliable food-grade alternatives are still scarce. Shellac coatings have been used for various active ingredients, but their stability is affected by the physicochemical properties of the encapsulated substances. It is well known, that shellac release can be modulated by an acidic subcoating. Here, we hypothesized that a triple shellac coating with an adjusted intermediate coating (acidic or alkaline) can be effectively used to counteract the differences in pH value of various encapsulated substances, allowing a precise targeting of the desired release pH value. First, the system was tested with riboflavin 5'-monophosphate sodium salt dihydrate (RMSD) as a characteristic model substance. Secondly, it was transferred to nicotinic acid (NA) and nicotinamide (NAM) as bioactive compounds with different physio-chemical properties: NAM, an alkaline crystalline and highly water-soluble substance, led to a premature release from conventional shellac microcapsules, whereas RMSD and NA with their medium solubility and neutral to acidic pH properties delayed the shellac dissolution. A precise modulation of the release profile of each substance was possible by the addition of different intermediate subcoatings: an acidic layer with citric acid counteracted the premature release of the alkaline and highly soluble NAM. In contrast, an alkaline sodium bicarbonate intermediate subcoating enhanced shellac swelling and delayed the release of NA and RMSD. In conclusion, the novel triple-layer shellac coating provides a much higher adaptability and reliability for nutritional formulations aiming at a targeted release in the ileocolonic region.

Comparative Efficacy of Chitosan, Pectin Based Mesalamine Colon Targeted Drug Delivery Systems on TNBS-induced IBD Model Rats

OBJECTIVE

A number of natural polymer-based drug delivery systems targeting the colon are reported for different applications. Most of the research is based on the class of natural polymers such as polysaccharides. This study compares the anti-inflammatory effect of different polysaccharide based tablets on IBD when a drug carrier is targeted to the colon as matrix and coated systems.

METHODS

The TNBS induced IBD Wistar rats were used as a model for the study. The microscopic and macroscopic parameters were studied in detail. Almost all the important IBD parameters were reported in this work.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that the polysaccharides are efficient in carrying the drugs to the colon. Reduction in the level of ulcer index (UI), Myeloperoxidase (MPO), and Malondialdehyde MDA, confirmed the inhibitory activity on the development of Reactive oxygen species (ROS). The increased level of Tumor necrosis factor (TNFα) an expression of colonic inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) was lowered in treatments as compared to TNBS control.

CONCLUSION

The different polymer-based mesalamine (DPBM) confirmed the efficient anti- inflammatory activity on IBD induced rats. The increased level of glutathione (GSH), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) also confirmed the effective anti-inflammatory effect. A significant decrease in the ulcer score and ulcer area was reported. The investigation revealed that chitosan is superior to pectin in IBD treatment likewise polysaccharide-based matrix systems are superior to the coated system.

Local delivery of macromolecules to treat diseases associated with the colon

Current treatments for intestinal diseases including inflammatory bowel diseases, irritable bowel syndrome, and colonic bacterial infections are typically small molecule oral dosage forms designed for systemic delivery. The intestinal permeability hurdle to achieve systemic delivery from oral formulations of macromolecules is challenging, but this drawback can be advantageous if an intestinal region is associated with the disease. There are some promising formulation approaches to release peptides, proteins, antibodies, antisense oligonucleotides, RNA, and probiotics in the colon to enable local delivery and efficacy. We briefly review colonic physiology in relation to the main colon-associated diseases (inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, infection, and colorectal cancer), along with the impact of colon physiology on dosage form design of macromolecules. We then assess formulation strategies designed to achieve colonic delivery of small molecules and concluded that they can also be applied some extent to macromolecules. We describe examples of formulation strategies in preclinical research aimed at colonic delivery of macromolecules to achieve high local concentration in the lumen, epithelial-, or sub-epithelial tissue, depending on the target, but with the benefit of reduced systemic exposure and toxicity. Finally, the industrial challenges in developing macromolecule formulations for colon-associated diseases are presented, along with a framework for selecting appropriate delivery technologies.

Gellan gum macrobeads loaded with naproxen: The impact of various naturally derived polymers on pH-dependent behavior

Aims

After oral administration, naproxen generates several side-effects related to stomach malfunction. Undoubtedly, the enteric dosage forms with naproxen can be considered as safer. Moreover, since it has been evidenced that development and growth of colorectal cancer is related to the presence of cyclooxygenase, naproxen is investigated in terms of the tumor prevention. The aim of the present work was to formulate and evaluate the properties of novel naproxen-loaded macrobeads, made on the basis of low-acyl gellan gum and its blends with carrageenans, guar gum, cellulose sulfate, and dextran sulfates.

Method

Seven formulations were prepared by ionotropic gelation. The morphology of the dried beads was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy. The next step focused on Raman spectroscopy and thermal analysis of naproxen, polymers, and the beads. Next, the swelling behavior was examined in three acceptor fluids at pH = 1.2; 4.5, and 7.4. The beads were evaluated regarding naproxen content and encapsulation efficiency. The last stage of the work concerned the drug release studies.

Results

Addition of any other polysaccharide than gellan resulted in flattening of the beads upon drying. Differential scanning calorimetry confirmed the crystalline form of naproxen. Raman spectra showed that no apparent interactions occurred. In the acidic environment, all the beads revealed the tendency to absorb water. The beads swelled to the greatest extent at pH = 4.5. Naproxen was released from the beads at a varied rate. At pH = 7.4, the most prolonged release was observed for the beads containing carrageenans.

Conclusions

We have proved that blending of gellan with various polysaccharides can change the pH-dependent properties of the beads loaded with naproxen. We believe that the information enclosed in the paper will be of particular importance regarding the development and characteristics of novel oral dosage forms based on natural polymers.

Nanostructure-Enabled and Macromolecule-Grafted Surfaces for Biomedical Applications

Advances in nanotechnology and nanomaterials have enabled the development of functional biomaterials with surface properties that reduce the rate of the device rejection in injectable and implantable biomaterials. In addition, the surface of biomaterials can be functionalized with macromolecules for stimuli-responsive purposes to improve the efficacy and effectiveness in drug release applications. Furthermore, macromolecule-grafted surfaces exhibit a hierarchical nanostructure that mimics nanotextured surfaces for the promotion of cellular responses in tissue engineering. Owing to these unique properties, this review focuses on the grafting of macromolecules on the surfaces of various biomaterials (e.g., films, fibers, hydrogels, and etc.) to create nanostructure-enabled and macromolecule-grafted surfaces for biomedical applications, such as thrombosis prevention and wound healing. The macromolecule-modified surfaces can be treated as a functional device that either passively inhibits adverse effects from injectable and implantable devices or actively delivers biological agents that are locally based on proper stimulation. In this review, several methods are discussed to enable the surface of biomaterials to be used for further grafting of macromolecules. In addition, we review surface-modified films (coatings) and fibers with respect to several biomedical applications. Our review provides a scientific update on the current achievements and future trends of nanostructure-enabled and macromolecule-grafted surfaces in biomedical applications.

When drugs plasticize film coatings: Unusual formulation effects observed with metoprolol and Eudragit RS

Metoprolol tartrate and metoprolol free base loaded pellet starter cores were coated with Eudragit RS, plasticized with 25% triethyl citrate (TEC). The initial drug loading and coating level were varied from 10 to 40 and 0 to 20%, respectively. Drug release was measured in 0.1 N HCl and phosphate buffer pH 7.4. The water uptake and swelling kinetics, mechanical properties and TEC leaching of/from coated pellets and/or thin, free films of identical composition as the film coatings were monitored. The following unusual tendencies were observed: (i) the relative drug release rate from coated pellets increased with increasing initial drug content, and (ii) drug release from pellets was much faster for metoprolol free base compared to metoprolol tartrate, despite its much lower solubility (factor >70). These phenomena could be explained by plasticizing effects of the drug for the polymeric film coatings. In particular: 1) Metoprolol free base is a much more potent plasticizer for Eudragit RS than the tartrate, leading to higher film permeability and overcompensating the pronounced differences in drug solubility. Also, Raman imaging revealed that substantial amounts of the free base migrated into the film coatings, whereas this was not the case for the tartrate. 2) The plasticizing effects of the drug for the film coating overcompensated potential increasing limited solubility effects when increasing the initial drug loading from 10 to 40%. In summary, this study clearly demonstrates how important the plasticization of polymeric controlled release film coatings by drugs can be, leading to unexpected formulation effects.

Evaluation of mesoporous silica nanoparticles for oral drug delivery - current status and perspective of MSNs drug carriers

The oral pathway is considered as the most common method for drug administration, although many drugs, especially the highly pH- and/or enzymatic biodegradable peptide drugs, are very difficult to formulate and achieve a good intestinal absorption. Efficient systematic absorption of an active substance, delivered via oral ingestion, is only achievable if the drug (1) is substantially present as a solution in the gastrointestinal tract, (2) is able to penetrate through the intestinal mucus, (3) overcomes the different gastrointestinal barriers, and (4) provides an effective therapeutic dose. Therefore, optimization of oral bioavailability of poorly-soluble drugs still remains a significant challenge for the pharmaceutical industry. Even though numerous conventional drug carriers have successfully solved some of the issues related to oral delivery of poorly-soluble drugs, only few of them met commercialization requirements. These drawbacks have led the scientific world to reconsider its approaches toward targeted drug delivery systems and researchers started looking for alternative vectorized carriers. In this area, nanoparticle-based materials have several significant advantages over free and non-formulated drugs. For example, nanosized porous silica carriers allow for more sustained and controlled drug release or improved oral bioavailability. Thus, in the present review, we will highlight the most important features of nanostructured silica drug carriers, such as particle size, particle shape, surface roughness or surface functionalization, and underline the key advantages of these nanosupports. In particular, this article will discuss recent progress and challenges in the area of mesoporous silica nanocarriers used for oral drug delivery. Additional emphasis will be set on the biological and chemical features of the gastrointestinal tract as well as currently tested nanoformulations and strategies to avoid drug degradation in the gastrointestinal environment.

Compacted Multiparticulate Systems for Colon-Specific Delivery of Ketoprofen

Pellet-containing tablets for colon-specific drug delivery present higher targeting efficiency and lower costs when compared with monolithic tablets and pellet-filled capsules, respectively. In this study, pellets containing ketoprofen were coated with different acrylic polymers and submitted to compaction. The influence of formulation and process factors on film integrity was then evaluated. Pellets were prepared via extrusion-spheronization and coated using two acrylic polymers (Eudragit® FS 30 D and Opadry® 94 k28327, PMMA and PMA, respectively). The resulting pellets were mixed with placebo granules and compressed in a hydraulic press. Multiple regression showed that ketoprofen release from pellet-containing tablets is predominantly influenced by pellet content, hardness, friability, and disintegration time. PMA-containing tablets prepared under low compaction force or with low pellet content showed rapid disintegration (<1 min) and ketoprofen release similar to those of uncompressed coated pellets (∼30% at 360 min of experiment). On the other hand, PMMA-containing tablets showed a higher rupture level, and those prepared with higher pellet content gave rise to a non-disintegrating matrix. Coated pellets were shown to be able to target ketoprofen to the colonic region. Targeting capacity was dependent on the physicochemical characteristics of the tablets.

Determination of the release mechanism of Theophylline from pellets coated with Surelease®-A water dispersion of ethyl cellulose

The aim of this study was to investigate the water transport over free standing films based on the aqueous ethyl cellulose (EC) coating Surelease^® and the drug (Theophylline) release mechanism from coated pellets. It was found that the main drug release rate from pellets was controlled by a diffusion mechanism. However, the drug release rate was altered by addition of sodium chloride to the external release medium. A decrease in the drug release rate when sodium chloride is added to the release medium has traditionally been used to indicate an osmotic drug release mechanism. However, our findings that the release rate decreased by sodium chloride addition could be explained by sodium chloride diffusing through the coating layer into the inner parts of the pellets, decreasing the solubility of Theophylline. This gave a reduced drug concentration gradient over the coating layer and thus a slower release rate. Furthermore, this study shows, as expected, that the transport of water through Surelease^® films into the pellets was faster than the transport out of Theophylline (approx. seven times), which was the reason why the pellets were swelling during the release. It was also shown that the drug release rate, determined for both whole dose release and for single pellets, decreased with increasing thickness (from 16 to 51μm) of the coating layer controlling the drug release rate.

Poly(aspartic acid) with adjustable pH-dependent solubility

Poly(aspartic acid) (PASP) derivatives with adjustable pH-dependent solubility were synthesized and characterized to establish the relationship between their structure and solubility in order to predict their applicability as a basic material for enteric coatings. Polysuccinimide, the precursor of PASP, was modified with short chain alkylamines, and the residual succinimide rings were subsequently opened to prepare the corresponding PASP derivatives. Study of the effect of the type and concentration of the side groups on the pH-dependent solubility of PASP showed that solubility can be adjusted by proper selection of the chemical structure. The Henderson-Hasselbalch (HH) and the extended HH equations were used to describe the pH-dependent solubility of the polymers quantitatively. The estimate provided by the HH equation is poor, but an accurate description of the pH-dependent solubility can be found with the extended HH equation. The dissolution rate of a polymer film prepared from a selected PASP derivative was determined by fluorescence marking. The film dissolved rapidly when the pH was increased above its pK_a. Cellular viability tests show that PASP derivatives are non-toxic to a human cell line. These polymers are thus of great interest as starting materials for enteric coatings.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Poly(amino acid) type biocompatible polymers were synthesized for future use as pharmaceutical film coatings. To this end, we tailored the pH-dependent solubility of poly(aspartic acid) (PASP). It was found that both the solubility and the pK_a values of the modified PASP depended strongly on composition. Fluorescent marking was used to characterize the dissolution of a chosen PASP derivative. In acidic media only a negligible amount of the polymer dissolved, but dissolution was very fast and complete at the pH values that prevail in the small intestine. As a consequence, enteric coatings based on such PASP derivatives may be used for drug delivery in the gastrointestinal tract.

Intestinal permeation enhancers for oral peptide delivery

Intestinal permeation enhancers (PEs) are one of the most widely tested strategies to improve oral delivery of therapeutic peptides. This article assesses the intestinal permeation enhancement action of over 250 PEs that have been tested in intestinal delivery models. In depth analysis of pre-clinical data is presented for PEs as components of proprietary delivery systems that have progressed to clinical trials. Given the importance of co-presentation of sufficiently high concentrations of PE and peptide at the small intestinal epithelium, there is an emphasis on studies where PEs have been formulated with poorly permeable molecules in solid dosage forms and lipoidal dispersions.

Prediction of Optimum Combination of Eudragit RS/Eudragit RL/Ethyl Cellulose Polymeric Free Films Based on Experimental Design for Using as a Coating System for Sustained Release Theophylline Pellets

PURPOSE

The physicochemical properties of free films made from different mixtures of sustained release polymers were investigated, and an optimum formulation coating on drug containing pellets, based on the study of free film was evaluated.

METHODS

In order to determine the effect of different variables on the permeability and swelling of films and procedure optimization, the experimental design was fulfilled based on the statistical method of a 3(3) full factorial design, and according to this method 27 formulations were prepared. The films were prepared using casting-solvent evaporation method. Water vapor permeability, the swelling and permeability of free films in both acidic and buffer media, were carried out. Then, the pellets containing theophylline were coated with the optimum formulation.

RESULTS

The results of this study demonstrated that an increase in the free film thickness and Eurdragit RS ratio in films lowered the water vapor transmission (WVT), the swelling and the permeability of all formulations, while an increase in the quantity of ethylcellulose, up to a specific ratio (approximately 40%), decreased the permeability and swelling. The most optimum free film formulation was made up of 60% Eudragit RS and 40% ethylcellulose.

CONCLUSION

Pellets coated with a 10% coating level of ethylcellulose and Eudragit RS (4:6) showed suitable release properties and could serve as a favorable sustained release system for theophylline.

Effect of Antiadherents on the Physical and Drug Release Properties of Acrylic Polymeric Films

Antiadherents are used to decrease tackiness of a polymer coating during both processing and subsequent storage. Despite being a common excipient in coating formulae, antiadherents may affect mechanical properties of the coating film as well as drug release from film-coated tablets, but how could addition of antiadherents affect these properties and to what extent and is there a relation between the physical characteristics of the tablet coat and the drug release mechanisms? The aim of this study was to evaluate physical characteristics of films containing different amounts of the antiadherents talc, glyceryl monostearate, and PlasACRYL(TM) T20. Eudragit RL30D and Eudragit RS30D as sustained release polymers and Eudragit FS30D as a delayed release material were used. Polymer films were characterized by tensile testing, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), microscopic examination, and water content as calculated from loss on drying. The effect of antiadherents on in vitro drug release for the model acetylsalicylic acid tablets coated with Eudragit FS30D was also determined. Increasing talc concentration was found to decrease the ability of the polymer films to resist mechanical stress. In contrast, glyceryl monostearate (GMS) and PlasACRYL produced more elastic films. Talc at concentrations higher than 25% caused negative effects, which make 25% concentration recommended to be used with acrylic polymers. All antiadherents delayed the drug release at all coating levels; hence, different tailoring of drug release may be achieved by adjusting antiadherent concentration with coating level.

Hot-melt extruded filaments based on pharmaceutical grade polymers for 3D printing by fused deposition modeling

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is a 3D printing technique based on the deposition of successive layers of thermoplastic materials following their softening/melting. Such a technique holds huge potential for the manufacturing of pharmaceutical products and is currently under extensive investigation. Challenges in this field are mainly related to the paucity of adequate filaments composed of pharmaceutical grade materials, which are needed for feeding the FDM equipment. Accordingly, a number of polymers of common use in pharmaceutical formulation were evaluated as starting materials for fabrication via hot melt extrusion of filaments suitable for FDM processes. By using a twin-screw extruder, filaments based on insoluble (ethylcellulose, Eudragit(®) RL), promptly soluble (polyethylene oxide, Kollicoat(®) IR), enteric soluble (Eudragit(®) L, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate) and swellable/erodible (hydrophilic cellulose derivatives, polyvinyl alcohol, Soluplus(®)) polymers were successfully produced, and the possibility of employing them for printing 600μm thick disks was demonstrated. The behavior of disks as barriers when in contact with aqueous fluids was shown consistent with the functional application of the relevant polymeric components. The produced filaments were thus considered potentially suitable for printing capsules and coating layers for immediate or modified release, and, when loaded with active ingredients, any type of dosage forms.

Biomaterial-Derived Calcium Carbonate Nanoparticles for Enteric Drug Delivery

Oral drug delivery systems provide the most convenient, noninvasive, readily acceptable alternatives to parenteral systems. In the current work, eggshell-derived calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) nanoparticles were used to develop enteric drug delivery system in the form of tablets. CaCO₃ nanoparticles were manufactured using top-down ball-milling method and characterized by X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and loaded with 5-fluorouracil as a model drug. Tablets with varying CaCO₃ core and binder compositions were fabricated and coated with Eudragit S100 or Eudragit L100. Suitability for enteric delivery of the tablets was tested by oral administration to rabbits and radiography. Radiograph images showed that the tablet remained in the stomach of the rabbit for up to 3 hours. Further modifications of these biomaterial-derived nanoparticles and the coatings will enable manufacturing of stable formulations for slow or controlled release of pharmaceuticals for enteric delivery.