Optimization and in-vitro/in-vivo evaluation of doxorubicin-loaded chitosan-alginate nanoparticles using a melanoma mouse model

A Combination of Cardamonin and Doxorubicin Selectively Affect Cell Viability of Melanoma Cells: An In Vitro Study

Treatment of the most aggressive and deadliest form of skin cancer, the malignant melanoma, still has room for improvement. Its invasive nature and ability to rapidly metastasize and to develop resistance to standard treatment often result in a poor prognosis. While the highly effective standard chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin (DOX) is widely used in a variety of cancers, systemic side effects still limit therapy. Especially, DOX-induced cardiotoxicity remains a big challenge. In contrast, the natural chalcone cardamonin (CD) has been shown to selectively kill tumor cells. Besides its anti-tumor activity, CD exhibits anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial properties. In this study, we investigated the effect of the combinational treatment of DOX with CD on A375 melanoma cells compared to normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDF) and rat cardiac myoblasts (H9C2 cells). DOX-induced cytotoxicity was unselective and affected all cell types, especially H9C2 cardiac myoblasts, demonstrating its cardiotoxic effect. In contrast, CD only decreased the cell viability of A375 melanoma cells, without harming normal (healthy) cells. The addition of CD selectively protected human dermal fibroblasts and rat cardiac myoblasts from DOX-induced cytotoxicity. While no apoptosis was induced by the combinational treatment in normal (healthy) cells, an apoptosis-mediated cytotoxicity was demonstrated in A375 melanoma cells. CD exhibited thiol reactivity as it was able to directly interact with N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in a cell-free assay and to induce heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in all cell types. And that took place in a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-independent manner. DOX decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) in all cell types, whereas CD selectively decreased mitochondrial respiration, affecting basal respiration, maximal respiration, spare respiratory capacity and ATP production in A375 melanoma cells, but not in healthy cardiac myoblasts. The DOX-induced cytotoxicity seen in melanoma cells was ROS-independent, whereas the cytotoxic effect of CD was associated with CD-induced ROS-formation and/or its thiol reactivity. This study highlights the beneficial properties of the addition of CD to DOX treatment, which might protect patients from DOX-induced cardiotoxicity. Future experiments with other tumor cell lines or a mouse model should substantiate this hypothesis.

pH-responsive self-assembled nanoparticles for tumor-targeted drug delivery

Recent advances in the field of drug delivery have opened new avenues for the development of novel nanodrug delivery systems (NDDS) in cancer therapy. Self-assembled nanoparticles (SANPs) based on tumour microenvironment have great advantages in improving antitumor effect, and pH-responsive SANPs prepared by the combination of pH-responsive nanomaterials and self-assembly technology can effectively improve the efficacy and reduce the systemic toxicity of antitumor drugs. In this review, we describe the characteristics of self-assembly and its driving force, the mechanism of pH-responsive NDDS, and the nanomaterials for pH-responsive SANPs type. A series of pH-responsive SANPs for tumour-targeted drug delivery are discussed, with an emphasis on the relation between structural features and theranostic performance.

A promising strategy of surface-modified nanoparticles targeting CXCR4 for precision cancer therapy

Nanoparticle (NP) functionalization with specific ligands enhances targeted cancer therapy and imaging by promoting receptor recognition and improving cellular uptake. This review focuses on recent research exploring the interaction between cancer cell-expressed chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) and ligand-conjugated NPs, utilising small molecules, peptides, and antibodies. Active NP targeting has shown improved tumour targeting and reduced toxicity, enabling precision therapy and diagnosis. However, challenges persist in the clinical translation of targeted NPs due to issues with biological response, tumour accumulation, and maintaining NP quality at an industrial scale. Biological and intratumoral barriers further hinder efficient NP accumulation in tumours, hampering translatability. To address these challenges, the academic community is refocusing efforts on understanding NP biological fate and establishing robust preclinical models. Future studies should investigate NP-body interactions, develop computational models, and identify optimal preclinical models. Establishing central NP research databases and fostering collaboration across disciplines is crucial to expediting clinical translation. Overcoming these hurdles will unlock the transformative potential of CXCR4-ligand-NP conjugates in revolutionising cancer treatment.

Chitosan Alginate Nanoparticles of Protein Hydrolysate from Acheta domesticus with Enhanced Stability for Skin Delivery

This study aimed to develop chitosan alginate nanoparticles (CANPs) for enhanced stability for dermal delivery of protein hydrolysate from Acheta domesticus (PH). CANPs, developed using ionotropic pre-gelation followed by the polyelectrolyte complex technique, were characterized for particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential. After the incorporation of PH into CANPs, a comprehensive assessment included encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, morphology, chemical analyses, physical and chemical stability, irritation potential, release profile, skin permeation, and skin retention. The most optimal CANPs, comprising 0.6 mg/mL sodium alginate, 1.8 mg/mL calcium chloride, and 0.1 mg/mL chitosan, exhibited the smallest particle size (309 ± 0 nm), the narrowest PDI (0.39 ± 0.01), and pronounced negative zeta potential (-26.0 ± 0.9 mV), along with an encapsulation efficiency of 56 ± 2%, loading capacity of 2.4 ± 0.1%, release of 40 ± 2% after 48 h, and the highest skin retention of 12 ± 1%. The CANPs induced no irritation and effectively enhanced the stability of PH from 44 ± 5% of PH remaining in a solution to 74 ± 4% after three-month storage. Therefore, the findings revealed the considerable potential of CANPs in improving PH stability and skin delivery, with promising applications in cosmetics and related fields.

Glycan-based scaffolds and nanoparticles as drug delivery system in cancer therapy

Glycan-based scaffolds are unique in their high specificity, versatility, low immunogenicity, and ability to mimic natural carbohydrates, making them attractive candidates for use in cancer treatment. These scaffolds are made up of glycans, which are biopolymers with well biocompatibility in the human body that can be used for drug delivery. The versatility of glycan-based scaffolds allows for the modulation of drug activity and targeted delivery to specific cells or tissues, which increases the potency of drugs and reduces side effects. Despite their promise, there are still technical challenges in the design and production of glycan-based scaffolds, as well as limitations in their therapeutic efficacy and specificity.

A versatile theranostic magnetic polydopamine iron oxide NIR laser-responsive nanosystem containing doxorubicin for chemo-photothermal therapy of melanoma

Theranostics nanoparticles (NPs) have recently received much attention in cancer imaging and treatment. This study aimed to develop a multifunctional nanosystem for the targeted delivery of photothermal and chemotherapy agents. Fe3O4 NPs were modified with polydopamine, bovine serum albumin, and loaded with DOX via a thermal-cleavable Azo linker (Fe3O4@PDA@BSA-DOX). The size of Fe3O4@PDA@BSA NPs was approximately 98 nm under the desired conditions. Because of the ability of Fe3O4 and PDA to convert light into heat, the temperature of Fe3O4@PDA@BSA NPs increased to approximately 47 °C within 10 min when exposed to an 808 nm NIR laser with a power density of 1.5 W/cm2. The heat generated by the NIR laser leads to the breaking of AZO linker and drug release. In vivo and in vitro results demonstrated that prepared NPs under laser irradiation successfully eradicated tumor cells without any significant toxicity effect. Moreover, the Fe3O4@PDA@BSA NPs exhibited the potential to function as a contrasting agent. These NPs could accumulate in tumors with the help of an external magnet, resulting in a significant enhancement in the quality of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The prepared novel multifunctional NPs seem to be an efficient system for imaging and combination therapy in melanoma.

Molecular Frontiers in Melanoma: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Advances

Melanoma, a highly aggressive skin cancer, is characterized by rapid progression and high mortality. Recent advances in molecular pathogenesis have shed light on genetic and epigenetic changes that drive melanoma development. This review provides an overview of these developments, focusing on molecular mechanisms in melanoma genesis. It highlights how mutations, particularly in the BRAF, NRAS, c-KIT, and GNAQ/GNA11 genes, affect critical signaling pathways. The evolution of diagnostic techniques, such as genomics, transcriptomics, liquid biopsies, and molecular biomarkers for early detection and prognosis, is also discussed. The therapeutic landscape has transformed with targeted therapies and immunotherapies, improving patient outcomes. This paper examines the efficacy, challenges, and prospects of these treatments, including recent clinical trials and emerging strategies. The potential of novel treatment strategies, including neoantigen vaccines, adoptive cell transfer, microbiome interactions, and nanoparticle-based combination therapy, is explored. These advances emphasize the challenges of therapy resistance and the importance of personalized medicine. This review underlines the necessity for evidence-based therapy selection in managing the increasing global incidence of melanoma.

Multitarget, multiagent PLGA nanoparticles for simultaneous tumor eradication and TME remodeling in a melanoma mouse model

Despite the fact that chemoimmunotherapy has emerged as a key component in the era of cancer immunotherapy, it is challenged by the complex tumor microenvironment (TME) that is jam-packed with cellular and non-cellular immunosuppressive components. The aim of this study was to design a nanoparticulate system capable of sufficiently accumulating in the tumor and spleen to mediate local and systemic immune responses, respectively. The study also aimed to remodel the immunosuppressive TME. For such reasons, multi-functional polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) were engineered to simultaneously eradicate the cancer cells, silence the tumor-associated fibroblasts (TAFs), and re-educate the tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) using doxorubicin, losartan, and metformin, respectively. These agents were also selected for their ability to tip the balance of the splenic immune cells towards immunostimulatory phenotypes. To establish TAM and TAF cultures, normal macrophages and fibroblasts were incubated with B16F10 melanoma cell (Mel)-derived secretome. Drug-loaded PLGA NPs were prepared, characterized, and tested in the target cell types. Organ distribution of fluorescein-loaded PLGA NPs was evaluated in a mouse model of melanoma. Finally, the local and systemic effects of different combination therapy programs were portrayed. The in vitro studies showed that the drug-loaded PLGA NPs could significantly ablate the immunosuppressive nature of Mel and skew TAMs and TAFs towards more favorable phenotypes. While in vivo, PLGA NPs were proven to exhibit long blood circulation time and to localize preferentially in the tumor and the spleen. The combination of either metformin or losartan with doxorubicin was superior to the monotherapy, both locally and systemically. However, the three-agent combo produced detrimental effects in the form of compromised well-being, immune depletion, and metastasis. These findings indicate the potential of TME remodeling as means to prime the tumors for successful chemoimmunotherapy. In addition, they shed light on the importance of the careful use of combination therapies and the necessity of employing dose-reduction strategies. D-NPs doxorubicin-loaded NPs, M-NPs metformin-loaded NPs, L-NPs losartan-loaded NPs, TAMs tumor-associated macrophages, TAFs tumor-associated fibroblasts, PD-L1 programmed death ligand 1, TNF-α tumor necrosis factor alpha, TGF-β transforming growth factor beta, CD206/40/86 cluster of differentiation 206/40/86, α-SMA alpha-smooth muscle actin, MMPs matrix metalloproteases.

A supramolecular catalyst based on sodium alginate and viologen calix[4]resorcinol for the room temperature hydrolysis of paraoxon

Properties of paraoxon, such as poor water solubility, low rate of natural decomposition, ability to accumulate in soil and wastewater, lead to the fact that paraoxon is found in various agricultural products and textiles. In this regard, the search for effective ways of paraoxon degradation becomes an extremely urgent problem, which can be solved by creating catalysts by mimicking paraxonase. In this work, a complex of physicochemical methods was used to study the supramolecular interactions of sodium alginate, which has a calcium-binding ability similar to paraxonase, with viologen calix[4]resorcinol and to reveal the nature of the intermolecular interactions between them resulting in the spontaneous formation of nanoparticles. Before proceeding to the investigation of the binding ability of obtained nanoparticles to paraoxon, the encapsulating effect of nanoparticles on a number of model substrates of different solubility (doxorubicin hydrochloride, quercetin and oleic acid) was studied. The kinetics of paraoxon hydrolysis reaction using these nanoparticles was studied at room temperature in an aqueous medium by spectrophotometric method. The rate of this reaction increases with increasing concentration of stable nanoparticles having hydrophobic domains that ensure paraoxon immobilization. The results obtained allow considering the supramolecular polysaccharide/calixarene system as an effective biomimetic catalyst.

Biopolymeric Nanogel as a Drug Delivery System for Doxorubicin-Improved Drug Stability and Enhanced Antineoplastic Activity in Skin Cancer Cells

In this study, doxorubicin was loaded in a chitosan-albumin nanogel with the aim of improving its stability and exploring the potential of the system in the treatment of skin cancer. Infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction confirmed the encapsulation of the drug. Transmission electron microscopy revealed the spherical shape of the nanogel particles. The drug-loaded nanogel was characterized with a small diameter of 29 nm, narrow polydispersity (0.223) and positive zeta potential (+34 mV). The exposure of encapsulated doxorubicin to light (including UV irradiation and daylight) did not provoke any degradation, whereas the nonencapsulated drug was significantly degraded. In vitro studies on keratinocytes (HaCaT) and epidermoid squamous skin carcinoma cells (A-431) disclosed that the encapsulated doxorubicin was more cytotoxic on both cell lines than the pure drug was. More importantly, the cytotoxic concentration of encapsulated doxorubicin in carcinoma cells was approximately two times lower than that in keratinocytes, indicating that it would not affect them. Thus, the loading of doxorubicin into the developed chitosan-albumin nanogel definitely stabilized the drug against photodegradation and increased its antineoplastic effect on the skin cancer cell line.

Advances in Chitosan-based Drug Delivery Systems in Melanoma: A Narrative Review

Melanoma accounts for the minority of skin cancer cases. However, it has the highest mortality rate among the subtypes of skin cancer. At the early stages of the disease, patients show a good prognosis after the surgery, but developing metastases leads to a remarkable drop in patients' 5-year survival rate. Despite the advances made in the therapeutic approaches to this disease, melanoma treatment is still facing several obstacles. Systemic toxicity, water insolubility, instability, lack of proper biodistribution, inadequate cellular penetration, and rapid clearance are some of the challenges that should be addressed in the field of melanoma treatment. While various delivery systems have been developed to circumvent these challenges, chitosan-based delivery platforms have indicated significant success. Chitosan that is produced by the deacetylation of chitin can be formulated into different materials (e.g., nanoparticle, film, and hydrogel) due to its characteristics. Both in vitro and in vivo studies have reported that chitosan-based materials can be used in drug delivery systems while offering a solution for the common problems in this area, such as enhancing biodistribution and skin penetration as well as the sustained release of the drugs. Herein, we reviewed the studies concerning the role of chitosan as a drug delivery system in melanoma and discussed how these drug systems are used for delivering chemotherapeutic drugs (e.g., doxorubicin and paclitaxel), genes (e.g., TRAIL), and RNAs (e.g., miRNA199a and STAT3 siRNA) successfully. Furthermore, we take a look into the role of chitosan-based nanoparticles in neutron capture therapy.

Stimuli-responsive (nano)architectures for phytochemical delivery in cancer therapy

The use of phytochemicals for purpose of cancer therapy has been accelerated due to resistance of tumor cells to conventional chemotherapy drugs and therefore, monotherapy does not cause significant improvement in the prognosis and survival of patients. Therefore, administration of natural products alone or in combination with chemotherapy drugs due to various mechanisms of action has been suggested. However, cancer therapy using phytochemicals requires more attention because of poor bioavailability of compounds and lack of specific accumulation at tumor site. Hence, nanocarriers for specific delivery of phytochemicals in tumor therapy has been suggested. The pharmacokinetic profile of natural products and their therapeutic indices can be improved. The nanocarriers can improve potential of natural products in crossing over BBB and also, promote internalization in cancer cells through endocytosis. Moreover, (nano)platforms can deliver both natural and synthetic anti-cancer drugs in combination cancer therapy. The surface functionalization of nanostructures with ligands improves ability in internalization in tumor cells and improving cytotoxicity of natural compounds. Interestingly, stimuli-responsive nanostructures that respond to endogenous and exogenous stimuli have been employed for delivery of natural compounds in cancer therapy. The decrease in pH in tumor microenvironment causes degradation of bonds in nanostructures to release cargo and when changes in GSH levels occur, it also mediates drug release from nanocarriers. Moreover, enzymes in the tumor microenvironment such as MMP-2 can mediate drug release from nanocarriers and more progresses in targeted drug delivery obtained by application of nanoparticles that are responsive to exogenous stimulus including light.

Chitosan/Alginate Nanogels Containing Multicore Magnetic Nanoparticles for Delivery of Doxorubicin

In this study, multicore-like iron oxide (Fe3O4) and manganese ferrite (MnFe2O4) nanoparticles were synthesized and combined with nanogels based on chitosan and alginate to obtain a multimodal drug delivery system. The nanoparticles exhibited crystalline structures and displayed sizes of 20 ± 3 nm (Fe3O4) and 11 ± 2 nm (MnFe2O4). The Fe3O4 nanoparticles showed a higher saturation magnetization and heating efficiency compared with the MnFe2O4 nanoparticles. Functionalization with citrate and bovine serum albumin was found to improve the stability and modified surface properties. The nanoparticles were encapsulated in nanogels, and provided high drug encapsulation efficiencies (~70%) using doxorubicin as a model drug. The nanogels exhibited sustained drug release, with enhanced release under near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation and acidic pH. The nanogels containing BSA-functionalized nanoparticles displayed improved sustained drug release at physiological pH, and the release kinetics followed a diffusion-controlled mechanism. These results demonstrate the potential of synthesized nanoparticles and nanogels for controlled drug delivery, offering opportunities for targeted and on-demand release in biomedical applications.

A novel convex acoustic lens-attached ultrasound drug delivery system and its testing in a murine melanoma subcutaneous modelo

Target-specific drug release is indispensable to improve chemotherapeutic efficacy as it enhances drug uptake and penetration into tumors. Sono-responsive drug-loaded nano-/micro-particles are a promising solution for achieving target specificity by exposing them to ultrasound near tumors. However, the complicated synthetic processes and limited ultrasound (US) exposure conditions, such as limited control of ultrasound focal depth and acoustic power, prevent the practical application of this approach in clinical practice. Here, we propose a convex acoustic lens-attached US (CALUS) as a simple, economic, and efficient alternative of focused US for drug delivery system (DDS) application. The CALUS was characterized both numerically and experimentally using a hydrophone. In vitro, microbubbles (MBs) inside microfluidic channels were destroyed using the CALUS with various acoustic parameters (acoustic pressure [P], pulse repetition frequency [PRF], and duty cycle) and flow velocity. In vivo, tumor inhibition was evaluated using melanoma-bearing mice by characterizing tumor growth rate, animal weight, and intratumoral drug concentration with/without CALUS DDS. US beams were measured to be efficiently converged by CALUS, which was consistent with our simulation results. The acoustic parameters were optimized through the CALUS-induced MB destruction test (P = 2.34 MPa, PRF = 100 kHz, and duty cycle = 9%); this optimal parameter combination successfully induced MB destruction inside the microfluidic channel with an average flow velocity of up to 9.6 cm/s. The CALUS also enhanced the therapeutic effects of an antitumor drug (doxorubicin) in vivo in a murine melanoma model. The combination of the doxorubicin and the CALUS inhibited tumor growth by ∼55% more than doxorubicin alone, clearly indicating synergistic antitumor efficacy. Our tumor growth inhibition performance was better than other methods based on drug carriers, even without a time-consuming and complicated chemical synthesis process. This result suggests that our novel, simple, economic, and efficient target-specific DDS may offer a transition from preclinical research to clinical trials and a potential treatment approach for patient-centered healthcare.

Evaluation of photodynamic therapy on nanoparticles and films loaded-nanoparticles based on chitosan/alginate for curcumin delivery in oral biofilms

Nanoparticles and nanoparticle-loaded films based on chitosan/sodium alginate with curcumin (CUR) are promising strategies to improve the efficacy of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) for the treatment of oral biofilms. This work aimed to develop and evaluate the nanoparticles based on chitosan and sodium alginate encapsulated with CUR dispersed in polymeric films associated with aPDT in oral biofilms. The NPs were obtained by polyelectrolytic complexation, and the films were prepared by solvent evaporation. The photodynamic effect was evaluated by counting Colony Forming Units (CFU/mL). Both systems showed adequate characterization parameters for CUR release. Nanoparticles controlled the release of CUR for a longer period than the nanoparticle-loaded films in simulated saliva media. Control and CUR-loaded nanoparticles showed a significant reduction of 3 log10 CFU/mL against S. mutans biofilms, compared to treatment without light. However, biofilms of S. mutans showed no photoinactivation effect using films loaded with nanoparticles even in the presence of light. These results demonstrate the potential of chitosan/sodium alginate nanoparticles associated with aPDT as carriers for the oral delivery of CUR, offering new possibilities to improve the treatment of dental caries and infections. This work will contribute to advances in the search for innovative delivery systems in dentistry.

Advancements in nanoparticle-based treatment approaches for skin cancer therapy

Skin cancer has emerged as the fifth most commonly reported cancer in the world, causing a burden on global health and the economy. The enormously rising environmental changes, industrialization, and genetic modification have further exacerbated skin cancer statistics. Current treatment modalities such as surgery, radiotherapy, conventional chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy are facing several issues related to cost, toxicity, and bioavailability thereby leading to declined anti-skin cancer therapeutic efficacy and poor patient compliance. In the context of overcoming this limitation, several nanotechnological advancements have been witnessed so far. Among various nanomaterials, nanoparticles have endowed exorbitant advantages by acting as both therapeutic agents and drug carriers for the remarkable treatment of skin cancer. The small size and large surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles escalate the skin tumor uptake through their leaky vasculature resulting in enhanced therapeutic efficacy. In this context, the present review provides up to date information about different types and pathology of skin cancer, followed by their current treatment modalities and associated drawbacks. Furthermore, it meticulously discusses the role of numerous inorganic, polymer, and lipid-based nanoparticles in skin cancer therapy with subsequent descriptions of their patents and clinical trials.

Solid phase synthesis of oxidized sodium alginate-tobramycin conjugate and its application for infected wound healing

Although sodium alginate possesses excellent biocompatibility, moisture retention and easy availability, it cannot be directly applied for infected wound treatment. Herein, a solid phase synthesis strategy was proposed to fabricate oxidized sodium alginate-tobramycin conjugate (OSA-TOB) for anti-infection dressing development. 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectra indicated that the oxidization process does not change the ratio of β-D-mannuronic acid (M) / α-L-guluronic acid (G) in OSA and the oxidization reaction shows no stereoselectivity. Elemental analysis disclosed that the graft ratio of tobramycin in OSA-TOB is 13.8 %. Antibacterial test indicated that OSA-TOB can effectively inhibit four prevalent pathogenic bacterial S.epidermidis, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus and E. coli via a different antibacterial mechanism compared to the original TOB. Hemolysis and cytotoxicity assays shown that OSA-TOB have superior hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility. Infected wound healing assay shown that the healing rate of OSA-TOB is the highest. Further analysis indicated that OSA-TOB can reduce the local inflammatory response, accelerate the form of epithelium and collagen deposition. In conclusions, OSA-TOB synthesized in solid phase can be potentially applied as a promising anti-infection wound dressing.

Microbial polysaccharides: An emerging family of natural biomaterials for cancer therapy and diagnostics

Microbial polysaccharides (MPs) offer immense diversity in structural and functional properties. They are extensively used in advance biomedical science owing to their superior biodegradability, hemocompatibility, and capability to imitate the natural extracellular matrix microenvironment. Ease in tailoring, inherent bio-activity, distinct mucoadhesiveness, ability to absorb hydrophobic drugs, and plentiful availability of MPs make them prolific green biomaterials to overcome the significant constraints of cancer chemotherapeutics. Many studies have demonstrated their application to obstruct tumor development and extend survival through immune activation, apoptosis induction, and cell cycle arrest by MPs. Synoptic investigations of MPs are compulsory to decode applied basics in recent inclinations towards cancer regimens. The current review focuses on the anticancer properties of commercially available and newly explored MPs, and outlines their direct and indirect mode of action. The review also highlights cutting-edge MPs-based drug delivery systems to augment the specificity and efficiency of available chemotherapeutics, as well as their emerging role in theranostics.

Pulmonary drug delivery applications of natural polysaccharide polymer derived nano/micro-carrier systems: A review

Respiratory distress syndrome and pneumothorax are the foremost causes of death as a result of the changing lifestyle and increasing air pollution. Numerous approaches have been studied for the pulmonary delivery of drugs, proteins as well as peptides using meso/nanoparticles, nanocrystals, and liposomes. These nano/microcarrier systems (NMCs) loaded with drug provide better systemic as well as local action. Furthermore, natural polysaccharide-based polymers such as chitosan (CS), alginate (AG), hyaluronic acid, dextran, and cellulose are highly used for the preparation of nanoparticles and delivery of the drug into the pulmonary tract due to their advantageous properties such as low toxicity, high hydrophobicity, supplementary mucociliary clearance, mucoadhesivity, and biological efficacy. These properties ease the delivery of drugs onto the targeted site. Herein, recent advances in the natural polymer-derived NMCs have been reviewed for their transport and mechanism of action into the bronchiolar region as well as the respiratory region. Various physicochemical properties such as surface charge, size of nanocarrier system, surface modifications, and toxicological effects of these nanocarriers in vitro and in vivo are elucidated as well. Furthermore, challenges faced for the preparation of a model NMCs for pulmonary drug delivery are also discoursed.

Chitosan-alginate nanoparticles of cabazitaxel: Design, dual-receptor targeting and efficacy in lung cancer model

Cabazitaxel (CZT) loaded chitosan-alginate based (CSA) nanoparticles were developed with dual targeting functions of both folate receptor and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) using ionic gelation technique. The chitosan-folate conjugate was synthesized, and characterized by using FTIR, NMR and Mass spectroscopy. The physicochemical parameters and morphology of all CSA nanoparticles were examined. The degree of conjugation of folic acid and cetuximab (CTXmab) was determined by UV-Visible spectroscopy and Bradford assay, respectively. Moreover, XPS analysis also supported the presence of the ligands on nanoparticles. The cellular-uptake study performed on A-549 cells demonstrated a significant enhancement in the uptake of dual-receptor targeted CSA nanoparticles than non-targeted and single-receptor targeted CSA nanoparticles. Further, CZT-loaded dual receptors targeted CSA nanoparticles also showed significantly lower IC₅₀ values (~38 folds) than the CZT control against A-549 cells. Further, in-vivo histopathological evaluations of dual receptor-targeted CSA nanoparticles have demonstrated better safety in Wistar rats. Moreover, its treatment on the Benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P) induced lung cancer mice model has showed the enhanced anticancer efficacy of CZT with a prolonged survival rate.

Development of a Curcumin-Loaded Lecithin/Chitosan Nanoparticle Utilizing a Box-Behnken Design of Experiment: Formulation Design and Influence of Process Parameters

Curcumin (CUR) has impressive pharmacologic properties, including cardioprotective, neuroprotective, antimicrobial, and anticancer activity. However, the pharmaceutical application of CUR is limited due to its poor aqueous solubility and low bioavailability. The development of novel formulations has attracted considerable attention to the idea of applying nanobiotechnology to improve the therapeutic efficacy of these challenging compounds. In this study, CUR-loaded lecithin−chitosan nanoparticles (CUR/LCSNPs) were developed and optimized by the concentration of chitosan, lecithin, and stirring speed by a 3-factorial Box-Behnken statistical design, resulting in an optimal concentration of chitosan (A) and lecithin (B) with a 1200 rpm stirring speed (C), with applied constraints of minimal average particle size (Y1), optimal zeta potential (Y2), and maximum entrapment efficiency (%EE) (Y3). The mean particle size of the checkpoint formulation ranged from 136.44 ± 1.74 nm to 267.94 ± 3.72, with a zeta potential of 18.5 ± 1.39 mV to 36.8 ± 3.24 mV and %EE of 69.84 ± 1.51% to 78.50 ± 2.11%. The mean particle size, zeta potential, %EE, and % cumulative drug release from the optimized formulation were 138.43 ± 2.09 nm, +18.98 ± 0.72 mV, 77.39 ± 1.70%, and 86.18 ± 1.5%, respectively. In vitro drug release followed the Korsmeyer−Peppas model with Fickian diffusion (n < 0.45). The optimized technique has proven successful, resulting in a nanoformulation that can be used for the high loading and controlled release of lipophilic drugs.

How to Treat Melanoma? The Current Status of Innovative Nanotechnological Strategies and the Role of Minimally Invasive Approaches like PTT and PDT

Melanoma is the most aggressive type of skin cancer, the incidence and mortality of which are increasing worldwide. Its extensive degree of heterogeneity has limited its response to existing therapies. For many years the therapeutic strategies were limited to surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Fortunately, advances in knowledge have allowed the development of new therapeutic strategies. Despite the undoubted progress, alternative therapies are still under research. In this context, nanotechnology is also positioned as a strong and promising tool to develop nanosystems that act as drug carriers and/or light absorbents to potentially improve photothermal and photodynamic therapies outcomes. This review describes the latest advances in nanotechnology field in the treatment of melanoma from 2011 to 2022. The challenges in the translation of nanotechnology-based therapies to clinical applications are also discussed. To sum up, great progress has been made in the field of nanotechnology-based therapies, and our understanding in this field has greatly improved. Although few therapies based on nanoparticulate systems have advanced to clinical trials, it is expected that a large number will come into clinical use in the near future. With its high sensitivity, specificity, and multiplexed measurement capacity, it provides great opportunities to improve melanoma treatment, which will ultimately lead to enhanced patient survival rates.

Nanoparticle-Based Combination Therapy for Melanoma

Melanoma is a cutaneous carcinoma, and its incidence is rapidly increasing with every year. The treatment options for melanoma have been comprehensively studied. Conventional treatment methods (e.g., radiotherapy, chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy) with surgical removal inevitably cause serious complications; moreover, resistance is common. Nanoparticles (NPs) combined with conventional methods are new and promising options to treat melanoma, and many combinations have been achieving good success. Due to their physical and biological features, NPs can help target intended melanoma cells more efficiently with less damage. This creates new hope for a better treatment strategy for melanoma with minimum damage and maximum efficacy.

Surfactant-Free Chitosan/Cellulose Acetate Phthalate Nanoparticles: An Attempt to Solve the Needs of Captopril Administration in Paediatrics

The Paediatric Committee of the European Medicines Agency encourages research into medicinal products for children, in particular, the development of an age-appropriate formulation of captopril is required in the cardiovascular therapeutic area. The aim of this study was the development of a liquid formulation using nanoparticles based only on chitosan and cellulose acetate phthalate containing captopril for the treatment of hypertension, heart failure and diabetic nephropathy in paediatric patients. Nanoparticles were prepared by a nanoprecipitation method/dropping technique without using surfactants, whose use can be associated with toxicity. A range of different cellulose to chitosan weight ratios were tested. A good encapsulation efficiency (61.0 ± 6.5%) was obtained when a high chitosan concentration was used (1:3 ratio); these nanoparticles (named NP-C) were spherical with a mean diameter of 427.1 ± 32.7 nm, 0.17 ± 0.09 PDI and +53.30 ± 0.95 mV zeta potential. NP-C dispersion remained stable for 28 days in terms of size and drug content and no captopril degradation was observed. NP-C dispersion released 70% of captopril after 2 h in pH 7.4 phosphate buffer and NP-C dispersion did not have a cytotoxicity effect on neonatal human fibroblasts except at the highest dose tested after 48 h. As a result, chitosan/cellulose nanoparticles could be considered a suitable platform for captopril delivery in paediatrics for preparing solid/liquid dosage forms.

Applications of Chitosan-Alginate-Based Nanoparticles-An Up-to-Date Review

Chitosan and alginate are two of the most studied natural polymers that have attracted interest for multiple uses in their nano form. The biomedical field is one of the domains benefiting the most from the development of nanotechnology, as increasing research interest has been oriented to developing chitosan-alginate biocompatible delivery vehicles, antimicrobial agents, and vaccine adjuvants. Moreover, these nanomaterials of natural origin have also become appealing for environmental protection (e.g., water treatment, environmental-friendly fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides) and the food industry. In this respect, the present paper aims to discuss some of the newest applications of chitosan-alginate-based nanomaterials and serve as an inception point for further research in the field.

Application of Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery for the Treatment of Osteosarcoma: Focusing on the Liposomes

Osteosarcoma (OS) is one of the most common primary bone malignancies in children and adolescents. The toxicity to healthy tissues from conventional therapeutic strategies, including chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and drug resistance, severely affect OS patients' quality of life and cancer-specific outcomes. Many efforts have been made to develop various nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems with specific properties to overcome these limitations. Among the developed nanocarriers, liposomes are the most successful and promising candidates for providing targeted tumor therapy and enhancing the safety and therapeutic effect of encapsulated agents. Liposomes have low immunogenicity, high biocompatibility, prolonged half-life, active group protection, cell-like membrane structure, safety, and effectiveness. This review will discuss various nanomaterial-based carriers in cancer therapy and then the characteristics and design of liposomes with a particular focus on the targeting feature. We will also summarize the recent advances in the liposomal drug delivery system for OS treatment in preclinical and clinical studies.

Hyperthermia Enhances Doxorubicin Therapeutic Efficacy against A375 and MNT-1 Melanoma Cells

Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer, and its incidence has alarmingly increased in the last few decades, creating a need for novel treatment approaches. Thus, we evaluated the combinatorial effect of doxorubicin (DOX) and hyperthermia on A375 and MNT-1 human melanoma cell lines. Cells were treated with DOX for 24, 48, and 72 h and their viabilities were assessed. The effect of DOX IC10 and IC20 (combined at 43 °C for 30, 60, and 120 min) on cell viability was further analyzed. Interference on cell cycle dynamics, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and apoptosis upon treatment (with 30 min at 43 °C and DOX at the IC20 for 48 h) were analyzed by flow cytometry. Combined treatment significantly decreased cell viability, but not in all tested conditions, suggesting that the effect depends on the drug concentration and heat treatment duration. Combined treatment also mediated a G2/M phase arrest in both cell lines, as well as increasing ROS levels. Additionally, it induced early apoptosis in MNT-1 cells, while in A375 cells this effect was similar to the one caused by hyperthermia alone. These findings demonstrate that hyperthermia enhances DOX effect through cell cycle arrest, oxidative stress, and apoptotic cell death.

The Challenging Melanoma Landscape: From Early Drug Discovery to Clinical Approval

Melanoma is recognized as the most dangerous type of skin cancer, with high mortality and resistance to currently used treatments. To overcome the limitations of the available therapeutic options, the discovery and development of new, more effective, and safer therapies is required. In this review, the different research steps involved in the process of antimelanoma drug evaluation and selection are explored, including information regarding in silico, in vitro, and in vivo experiments, as well as clinical trial phases. Details are given about the most used cell lines and assays to perform both two- and three-dimensional in vitro screening of drug candidates towards melanoma. For in vivo studies, murine models are, undoubtedly, the most widely used for assessing the therapeutic potential of new compounds and to study the underlying mechanisms of action. Here, the main melanoma murine models are described as well as other animal species. A section is dedicated to ongoing clinical studies, demonstrating the wide interest and successful efforts devoted to melanoma therapy, in particular at advanced stages of the disease, and a final section includes some considerations regarding approval for marketing by regulatory agencies. Overall, considerable commitment is being directed to the continuous development of optimized experimental models, important for the understanding of melanoma biology and for the evaluation and validation of novel therapeutic strategies.

On-Demand Release of Drug from Magnetic Nanoparticle-Loaded Alginate Beads

Targeted delivery and controlled release of drugs has been considered to be an important therapeutic approach since it could allow a better treatment efficiency and less side effects. In this research, magnetite Fe3O4 nanoparticles were successfully synthesized via the coprecipitation method and then loaded in alginate beads with berberine as a drug model for drug release application. Various factors such as pH values of the suspended environment and surface modifications of the drug carrier could be exploited to adjust the amount of drug release. More importantly, the amount of drug release could be effectively controlled by an on-off switching operation of a static magnetic field.

Recent Progress in Nanomedicine for Melanoma Theranostics With Emphasis on Combination Therapy

Melanoma is an aggressive type of skin cancer with increasing incidence and high mortality rates worldwide. However, there is still a lack of efficient and resolutive treatment strategies, particularly in clinical settings. Currently, nanomedicine, an emerging area in the medical field, is being widely investigated in small animal models to afford melanoma theranostics. However, several problems, such as tumor heterogeneity, and drug resistance treatment with a single therapy, remain unresolved. Previous reviews have primarily focused on monotherapy for melanoma in the context of nanomedicine. In this review article, we summarize the recent progress in the application of nanomedicine for melanoma treatment, with particular attention to combination therapy based on nanomedicine to achieve optimized therapeutic output for melanoma treatment. In addition, we also highlight the fluorescence-guided strategies for intraoperative melanoma detection, especially in the near-infrared imaging window with greatly improved imaging contrast and penetration depth.

A comprehensive review on alginate-based delivery systems for the delivery of chemotherapeutic agent: Doxorubicin

Doxorubicin (DOX), an anthracycline drug, is widely used for the treatment of several cancers like osteosarcoma, cervical carcinoma, breast cancer, etc. DOX lacks target specificity; thereby it also affects normal cells thus resulting in several side-effects. A drug delivery system (DDS) can be used to deliver the drug in a controlled and sustained manner at a targeted site within the body. Various DDS like nanoemulsions, polymeric nanoparticles, and liposomes are used for loading DOX. Alginate, a polysaccharide is widely used for fabricating DDS due to its biodegradable and bio-compatible properties. Alginates, in combination with other biomaterials, have been extensively used as a novel drug delivery carrier for DOX. Alginate provides a platform for drug delivery in different forms like hydrogels, nanogels, nanoparticles, microparticles, graphene oxide systems, magnetic systems, etc. Herein, we briefly describe alginate in combination with other materials as a nanocarrier for targeted delivery of DOX for anti-cancer treatment.

Chitosan based-nanoparticles and nanocapsules: Overview, physicochemical features, applications of a nanofibrous scaffold, and bioprinting

Recent advancements in the synthesis, properties, and applications of chitosan as the second after cellulose available biopolymer in nature were discussed in this review. A general overview of processing and production procedures from A to Z was highlighted. Chitosan exists in three polymorphic forms which differ in degree of crystallinity (α, β, and γ). Thus, the degree of deacetylation, crystallinity, surface area, and molecular mass significantly affect most applications. Otherwise, the synthesis of chitosan nanofibers is suffering from many drawbacks that were recently treated by co-electrospun with other polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyethylene oxide (PEO), and polycaprolactone (PCL). Ultimately, this review focuses on the area of new trend utilization of chitosan nanoparticles as nanospheres and nanocapsules, in cartilage and bone regenerative medicine. Owing to its biocompatibility, bioavailability, biodegradability, and costless synthesis, chitosan is a promising biopolymeric structure for water remediation, drug delivery, antimicrobials, and tissue engineering.

Drug Delivery Approaches for Doxorubicin in the Management of Cancers

Aim:

We aimed to review the drug delivery approaches including a novel drug delivery system of doxorubicin as an important anticancer drug.

Background:

Doxorubicin (DOX) is widely used against breast, uterine, ovarian, lung and cervical cancer. It is listed among the essential medicines by WHO and is thus a very important drug that can be used to fight against cancer. Despite its effectiveness, the use of the drug is limited due to its dose-dependent toxicity. Several studies based on the DOX have suggested the need for novel drug delivery formulations in the treatment of malignant and cancerous diseases due to its cytotoxic nature.

Objectives:

This review focuses on the different formulations of DOX which is a useful drug in the management of cancers, but associated with toxicity thus these approaches found applicability in the reduction of its toxicity.

Methods:

We searched the scientific database using cancer, DOX, and different formulations as the keywords. Here in only peer-reviewed research articles collected which were useful to our current work.

Results:

This study is based on an examination of the recent advancements of its novel drug delivery formulations. DOX hydrochloride is the first liposomal anticancer drug, administered via the intravenous route, and also clinically approved for the treatment of lymphomas, leukemias, and solid tumors. DOX is prepared into a liposomal formulation that contains polyethylene glycol (PEG) layer around DOX containing liposome made by pegylation process. DOX also formulated in nano-formulations which is also discussed herein led to reduced toxicity and increased efficacy.

Conclusion:

In the review, we described the significance of DOX in the form of different delivery approaches in the management of cancers with a reduction in the associated toxicity.

Alginate Nanoformulation: Influence of Process and Selected Variables

Nanocarriers are defined as structures and devices that are constructed using nanomaterials which add functionality to the encapsulants. Being small in size and having a customized surface, improved solubility and multi-functionality, it is envisaged that nanoparticles will continue to create new biomedical applications owing to their stability, solubility, and bioavailability, as well as controlled release of drugs. The type and physiochemical as well as morphological attributes of nanoparticles influence their interaction with living cells and determine the route of administration, clearance, as well as related toxic effects. Over the past decades, biodegradable polymers such as polysaccharides have drowned a great deal of attention in pharmaceutical industry with respect to designing of drug delivery systems. On this note, biodegradable polymeric nanocarrier is deemed to control the release of the drug, stabilize labile molecules from degradation and site-specific drug targeting, with the main aim of reducing the dosing frequency and prolonging the therapeutic outcomes. Thus, it is essential to select the appropriate biopolymer material, e.g., sodium alginate to formulate nanoparticles for controlled drug delivery. Alginate has attracted considerable interest in pharmaceutical and biomedical applications as a matrix material of nanocarriers due to its inherent biological properties, including good biocompatibility and biodegradability. Various techniques have been adopted to synthesize alginate nanoparticles in order to introduce more rational, coherent, efficient and cost-effective properties. This review highlights the most used and recent manufacturing techniques of alginate-based nanoparticulate delivery system, including emulsification/gelation complexation, layer-by-layer, spray drying, electrospray and electrospinning methods. Besides, the effects of the main processing and formulation parameters on alginate nanoparticles are also summarized.

Advances in Natural or Synthetic Nanoparticles for Metastatic Melanoma Therapy and Diagnosis

Advanced melanoma is still a major challenge in oncology. In the early stages, melanoma can be treated successfully with surgery and the survival rate is high, nevertheless the survival rate drops drastically after metastasis dissemination. The identification of parameters predictive of the prognosis to support clinical decisions and of new efficacious therapies are important to ensure patients the best possible prognosis. Recent progress in nanotechnology allowed the development of nanoparticles able to protect drugs from degradation and to deliver the drug to the tumor. Modification of the nanoparticle surface by specific molecules improves retention and accumulation in the target tissue. In this review, we describe the potential role of nanoparticles in advanced melanoma treatment and discuss the current efforts of designing polymeric nanoparticles for controlled drug release at the site upon injection. In addition, we highlight the advances as well as the challenges of exosome-based nanocarriers as drug vehicles. We place special focus on the advantages of these natural nanocarriers in delivering various cargoes in advanced melanoma treatment. We also describe the current advances in knowledge of melanoma-related exosomes, including their biogenesis, molecular contents and biological functions, focusing our attention on their utilization for early diagnosis and prognosis in melanoma disease.

Current Status of Alginate in Drug Delivery

Alginate is one of the natural polymers that are often used in drug- and protein-delivery systems. The use of alginate can provide several advantages including ease of preparation, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and nontoxicity. It can be applied to various routes of drug administration including targeted or localized drug-delivery systems. The development of alginates as a selected polymer in various delivery systems can be adjusted depending on the challenges that must be overcome by drug or proteins or the system itself. The increased effectiveness and safety of sodium alginate in the drug- or protein-delivery system are evidenced by changing the physicochemical characteristics of the drug or proteins. In this review, various routes of alginate-based drug or protein delivery, the effectivity of alginate in the stem cells, and cell encapsulation have been discussed. The recent advances in the in vivo alginate-based drug-delivery systems as well as their toxicities have also been reviewed.

Ionotropic Gelation Synthesis of Chitosan-Alginate Nanodisks for Delivery System and In Vitro Assessment of Prostate Cancer Cytotoxicity

We report on the synthesis of chitosan-alginate nanodisks (Cs-Al NDs) using a simple approach consisting of the ionotropic gelation method. Sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) was used as crosslinking agent to promote the electrostatic interaction between amine groups the chitosan and hydroxyl and carboxyl groups of alginate. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images provided direct evidence of the morphology of the nanodisks where agglomeration was observed due to the electrostatic interaction between the functional groups. Furthermore, dynamic light scattering (DLS) showed that the hydrodynamic size of the Cs-Al NDs was 227 nm and 152 nm in pH 1.2 and pH 7.4, respectively, which is in agreement with the information observed in the SEM images. The chemical structure is presented mainly the amine and carboxyl groups due to the presence of chitosan and alginate in the nanodisks, respectively, which allow the electrostatic interaction through N-H linkages. According to the X-ray diffraction, we found that the Cs-Al NDs exhibited the typical structure of chitosan and alginate, which lead the formation of polyelectrolyte complexes. We also evaluated the encapsulation of amoxicillin in the nanodisk, obtaining a loading efficiency of 74.98%, as well as a maximum in vitro release amount of 63.2 and 52.3% at pH 1.2 and 7.4, respectively. Finally, the cytotoxicity effect of the Cs-Al nanodisks was performed in human prostatic epithelial PWR-1E and Caucasian prostate adenocarcinoma PC-3 cell lines, in which the cell viability was above 80% indicating low inhibition and determining the Cs-Al NDs as a promising technology for controlled delivery systems.