Mannosylated niosomes as adjuvant–carrier system for oral genetic immunization against Hepatitis B

Immunoregulatory effects of nanocurcumin in inflammatory milieu: Focus on COVID-19

The use of natural compounds, such as curcumin, to treat infections caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, inflammatory diseases, and various types of cancer is an active and dynamic area of research. Curcumin has a long history of use in the food industry, and there is currently a growing interest in its therapeutic applications. Numerous clinical trials have consistently shown that curcumin, a polyphenolic compound, is safe and well-tolerated even at high doses. There is no toxicity limit. However, the clinical efficacy of curcumin has been limited by its constraints. However, scientific evidence indicates that the use of adjuvants and carriers, such as nanoparticles, exosomes, micelles, and liposomes, can help overcome this limitation. The properties, functions, and human benefits of using nanocurcumin are well-supported by scientific research. Recent evidence suggests that nanocurcumin may be a beneficial therapeutic modality due to its potential to decrease gene expression and secretion of specific inflammatory biomarkers involved in the cytokinestorm seen in severe COVID-19, as well as increase lymphocyte counts. Nanocurcumin has demonstrated the ability to improve clinical manifestations and modulate immune response and inflammation in various autoinflammatory diseases. Additionally, its efficacy, affordability, and safety make it a promising replacement for residual cancer cells after tumor removal. However, further studies are necessary to evaluate the safety and efficacy of nanocurcumin as a new therapeutic in clinical trials, including appropriate dosage, frequency, and duration.

Nanovaccines: An effective therapeutic approach for cancer therapy

Cancer vaccines hold considerable promise for the immunotherapy of solid tumors. Nanomedicine offers several strategies for enhancing vaccine effectiveness. In particular, molecular or (sub) cellular vaccines can be delivered to the target lymphoid tissues and cells by nanocarriers and nanoplatforms to increase the potency and durability of antitumor immunity and minimize negative side effects. Nanovaccines use nanoparticles (NPs) as carriers and/or adjuvants, offering the advantages of optimal nanoscale size, high stability, ample antigen loading, high immunogenicity, tunable antigen presentation, increased retention in lymph nodes, and immunity promotion. To induce antitumor immunity, cancer vaccines rely on tumor antigens, which are administered in the form of entire cells, peptides, nucleic acids, extracellular vesicles (EVs), or cell membrane-encapsulated NPs. Ideal cancer vaccines stimulate both humoral and cellular immunity while overcoming tumor-induced immune suppression. Herein, we review the key properties of nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy and highlight the recent advances in their development based on the structure and composition of various (including synthetic and semi (biogenic) nanocarriers. Moreover, we discuss tumor cell-derived vaccines (including those based on whole-tumor-cell components, EVs, cell membrane-encapsulated NPs, and hybrid membrane-coated NPs), nanovaccine action mechanisms, and the challenges of immunocancer therapy and their translation to clinical applications.

A Comprehensive Review on Niosomes as a Tool for Advanced Drug Delivery

Over the past few decades, advancements in nanocarrier-based therapeutic delivery have been significant, and niosomes research has recently received much interest. The self-assembled nonionic surfactant vesicles lead to the production of niosomes. The most recent nanocarriers, niosomes, are self-assembled vesicles made of nonionic surfactants with or without the proper quantities of cholesterol or other amphiphilic molecules. Because of their durability, low cost of components, largescale production, simple maintenance, and high entrapment efficiency, niosomes are being used more frequently. Additionally, they enhance pharmacokinetics, reduce toxicity, enhance the solubility of poorly water-soluble compounds, & increase bioavailability. One of the most crucial features of niosomes is their controlled release and targeted diffusion, which is utilized for treating cancer, infectious diseases, and other problems. In this review article, we have covered all the fundamental information about niosomes, including preparation techniques, niosomes types, factors influencing their formation, niosomes evaluation, applications, and administration routes, along with recent developments.

An emerging era in manufacturing of drug delivery systems: Nanofabrication techniques

Nanotechnology has the capability of making significant contributions to healthcare. Nanofabrication of multifunctional nano- or micro-character systems is becoming incredibly influential in various sectors like electronics, photonics, energy, and biomedical gadgets worldwide. The invention of such items led to the merger of moderate cost and excellent quality nano or micro-characters into 3D structures. Nanofabrication techniques have many benefits as the primary technology for manipulating cellular surroundings to research signaling processes. The inherent nanoscale mechanisms of cyto-reactions include the existence and death of cells, stem cell segmentation, multiplication, cellular relocation, etc. Nanofabrication is essential in developing various nano-formulations like solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, liposomes, niosomes, nanoemulsions, microemulsions etc. Despite the initial development cost in designing the nanofabrication-based products, it has also reduced the total cost of the healthcare system by considering the added benefits compared to the other standard formulations. Thus, the current review mainly focuses on nanofabrication techniques, advantages, disadvantages, applications in developing various nanocarrier systems, challenges and future perspectives.

A Review on Recent Advances in Mannose-Functionalized Targeted Nanocarrier Delivery Systems in Cancer and Infective Therapeutics

Unmodified nanocarriers used in the chemotherapy of cancers and various infectious diseases exhibit prolonged blood circulation time, prevent enzymatic degradation and increase chemical stability of encapsulated therapeutics. However, off-target effect and lack of specificity associated with unmodified nanoparticles (NPs) limit their applications in the health care system. Mannose (Man) receptors with significant overexpression on antigen-presenting cells and macrophages are among the most admired targets for cancer and anti-infective therapeutics. Therefore, development of Man functionalized nanocarriers targeting Man receptors, for target specific drug delivery in the chemotherapy have been extensively studied. Present review expounds diverse Man-conjugated NPs with their potential for targeted drug delivery, improved biodistribution profiles and localization. Additionally, the review gives detailed account of the interactions of mannosylated NPs with various biological systems and their characterization not discussed in earlier published reports is discussed.

Lipid-Based Delivery Systems in Development of Genetic and Subunit Vaccines

Lipidic carriers are composed of natural, synthetic, or physiological lipid/phospholipid materials. The flexibility of lipid-based delivery systems for transferring a variety of molecules such as immunomodulators, antigens, and drugs play a key role in design of effective vaccination and therapeutic strategies against infectious and non-infectious diseases. Genetic and subunit vaccines are two major groups of promising vaccines that have the potential for improving the protective potency against different diseases. These vaccine strategies rely greatly on delivery systems with various functions, including cargo protection, targeted delivery, high bioavailability, controlled release of antigens, selective induction of antigen-specific humoral or cellular immune responses, and low side effects. Lipidic carriers play a key role in local tissue distribution, retention, trafficking, uptake and processing by antigen-presenting cells. Moreover, lipid nanoparticles have successfully achieved to the clinic for the delivery of mRNA. Their broad potential was shown by the recent approval of COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. However, size, charge, architecture, and composition need to be characterized to develop a standard lipidic carrier. Regarding the major roles of lipid-based delivery systems in increasing the efficiency and safety of vaccine strategies against different diseases, this review concentrates on their recent advancements in preclinical and clinical trials.

Niosomes: a novel targeted drug delivery system for cancer

Recently, nanotechnology is involved in various fields of science, of which medicine is one of the most obvious. The use of nanoparticles in the process of treating and diagnosing diseases has created a novel way of therapeutic strategies with effective mechanisms of action. Also, due to the remarkable progress of personalized medicine, the effort is to reduce the side effects of treatment paths as much as possible and to provide targeted treatments. Therefore, the targeted delivery of drugs is important in different diseases, especially in patients who receive combined drugs, because the delivery of different drug structures requires different systems so that there is no change in the drug and its effectiveness. Niosomes are polymeric nanoparticles that show favorable characteristics in drug delivery. In addition to biocompatibility and high absorption, these nanoparticles also provide the possibility of reducing the drug dosage and targeting the release of drugs, as well as the delivery of both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs by Niosome vesicles. Since various factors such as components, preparation, and optimization methods are effective in the size and formation of niosomal structures, in this review, the characteristics related to niosome vesicles were first examined and then the in silico tools for designing, prediction, and optimization were explained. Finally, anticancer drugs delivered by niosomes were compared and discussed to be a suitable model for designing therapeutic strategies. In this research, it has been tried to examine all the aspects required for drug delivery engineering using niosomes and finally, by presenting clinical examples of the use of these nanocarriers in cancer, its clinical characteristics were also expressed.

Mannose in vaccine delivery

Adjuvants and vaccine delivery systems are used widely to improve the efficacy of vaccines. Their primary roles are to protect antigen from degradation and allow its delivery and uptake by antigen presenting cells (APCs). Carbohydrates, including various structures/forms of mannose, have been broadly utilized to target carbohydrate binding receptors on APCs. This review summarizes basic functions of the immune system, focusing on the role of mannose receptors in antigen recognition by APCs. The most popular strategies to produce mannosylated vaccines via conjugation and formulation are presented. The efficacy of mannosylated vaccines is discussed in detail, taking into consideration factors, such as valency and number of mannose in mannose ligands, mannose density, length of spacers, special arrangement of mannose ligands, and routes of administration of mannosylated vaccines. The advantages and disadvantages of mannosylation strategy and future directions in the development of mannosylated vaccines are also debated.

Emerging advances in nanomedicine for breast cancer immunotherapy: opportunities and challenges

Breast cancer is one of the most common causes of cancer-related morbidity and mortality in women worldwide. Early diagnosis and an appropriate therapeutic approach for all cancers are climacterics for a favorable prognosis. Targeting the immune system in breast cancer is already a clinical reality with notable successes, specifically with checkpoint blockade antibodies and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy. However, there have been inevitable setbacks in the clinical application of cancer immunotherapy, including inadequate immune responses due to insufficient delivery of immunostimulants to immune cells and uncontrolled immune system modulation. Rapid advancements and new evidence have suggested that nanomedicine-based immunotherapy may be a viable option for treating breast cancer.

A state-of-the-art review on the recent advances of niosomes as a targeted drug delivery system

The buildup of nonionic surfactants in the aqueous environment produces niosomes. The usage of niosomes is becoming increasingly frequent due to their sustainability, low cost of components and assembly, large-scale manufacture, and, finally, easy maintenance of the niosomes to the other. Because of their nonionic characteristics, niosomes play a critical role in medication delivery systems. Controlled release and targeted distribution of niosomes to treat cancer, infectious illnesses, and other disorders are one of their most important properties. Niosomes can also be injected by ocular and transdermal routes, which are less common than oral and parenteral administration. Using niosomes to manufacture biotechnology goods and novel vaccines is one of the most exciting research fields today. The molecular structure of niosomes, the physicochemical characteristics of nonionic surfactants in their formulation, the influence of external stimuli on niosomes, the many methods of niosomes administration, and their diverse therapeutic qualities are all explored in this study.

Brij Niosomes as Carriers for Sustained Drug Delivery─A Fluorescence-Based Approach to Probe the Niosomal Microenvironment

Niosomes were prepared using a triad of polyoxyethylene alkyl ether surfactants. The focus was to elucidate the effects of varying alkyl chain length and varying hydrophilic headgroups on the structure of the niosomes, with an aim to design niosomes for efficient encapsulation and release of both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs. The phase transitions of the surfactants were ascertained by differential scanning calorimetry. It was found that the headgroup has a profound influence on the niosomal bilayer. Fluorescent probes Coumarin 153 (C-153) and 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene were used to probe the structural integrity of the niosomal bilayer under stress conditions. Other aspects of the niosomes were probed by following the aggregation of the dyes fluorescein (FL) and Nile Red, red edge excitation shift, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between them. Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy provides proof of the exact location of the donor and acceptor dyes in the niosomes under FRET condition. It was also shown that the niosomes are efficient "carriers" for entrapment and controlled release of the chemotherapeutic drug 5-fluorouracil. It was found that a rigid niosomal bilayer leads to controlled drug release. The present work is relevant for the future use of these niosomes for cargo entrapment.

Nanotechnologies in Delivery of DNA and mRNA Vaccines to the Nasal and Pulmonary Mucosa

Recent advancements in the field of in vitro transcribed mRNA (IVT-mRNA) vaccination have attracted considerable attention to such vaccination as a cutting-edge technique against infectious diseases including COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2. While numerous pathogens infect the host through the respiratory mucosa, conventional parenterally administered vaccines are unable to induce protective immunity at mucosal surfaces. Mucosal immunization enables the induction of both mucosal and systemic immunity, efficiently removing pathogens from the mucosa before an infection occurs. Although respiratory mucosal vaccination is highly appealing, successful nasal or pulmonary delivery of nucleic acid-based vaccines is challenging because of several physical and biological barriers at the airway mucosal site, such as a variety of protective enzymes and mucociliary clearance, which remove exogenously inhaled substances. Hence, advanced nanotechnologies enabling delivery of DNA and IVT-mRNA to the nasal and pulmonary mucosa are urgently needed. Ideal nanocarriers for nucleic acid vaccines should be able to efficiently load and protect genetic payloads, overcome physical and biological barriers at the airway mucosal site, facilitate transfection in targeted epithelial or antigen-presenting cells, and incorporate adjuvants. In this review, we discuss recent developments in nucleic acid delivery systems that target airway mucosa for vaccination purposes.

Supramolecular Nanostructures for Vaccines

Although this is an era of pandemics and many devastating diseases, this is also a time when bionanotechnology flourishes, illuminating a multidisciplinary field where vaccines are quickly becoming a balsam and a prevention against insidious plagues. In this work, we tried to gain and also give a deeper understanding on nanovaccines and their way of acting to prevent or cure cancer, infectious diseases, and diseases caused by parasites. Major nanoadjuvants and nanovaccines are temptatively exemplified trying to contextualize our own work and its relative importance to the field. The main properties for novel adjuvants seem to be the nanosize, the cationic character, and the biocompatibility, even if it is achieved in a low dose-dependent manner.

Transformable vesicles for cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy that utilizes the human immune system to fight cancer represents a revolutionary method for cancer treatment. Immunotherapeutic agents that trigger the immune response should be carefully delivered to the desired site to maximize immunotherapy effectiveness and minimize side effects. Vesicles offer the possibility of encapsulating both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs and thus serve as a promising delivery tool. As multiple irreconcilable requirements exist at different transport stages, developing vesicles transformable in response to given stimuli is of great significance. In this review, we first introduced various vesicle types used for immunotherapy. Furthermore, the typical stimuli that trigger vesicle transformation and the usually generated transformation styles were described. Focusing on three aspects of antigen-presenting cell (APC)/T cell activation, tumor microenvironment (TME) amelioration, and immunogenic cell death (ICD)-induced immunotherapy, we reviewed recently reported transformable vesicles for tumor treatment. Finally, we put forward possible directions for future research and clinical translation.

The Multifaceted Role of Curcumin in Advanced Nanocurcumin Form in the Treatment and Management of Chronic Disorders

Curcumin is the primary polyphenol in turmeric's curcuminoid class. It has a wide range of therapeutic applications, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antibacterial, and anticancer effects against various cancers, but has poor solubility and low bioavailability. Objective: To improve curcumin's bioavailability, plasma concentration, and cellular permeability processes. The nanocurcumin approach over curcumin has been proven appropriate for encapsulating or loading curcumin (nanocurcumin) to increase its therapeutic potential. Conclusion: Though incorporating curcumin into nanocurcumin form may be a viable method for overcoming its intrinsic limitations, and there are reasonable concerns regarding its toxicological safety once it enters biological pathways. This review article mainly highlights the therapeutic benefits of nanocurcumin over curcumin.

Nano and Microparticles as Potential Oral Vaccine Carriers and Adjuvants Against Infectious Diseases

Mucosal surfaces are the first site of infection for most infectious diseases and oral vaccination can provide protection as the first line of defense. Unlike systemic administration, oral immunization can stimulate cellular and humoral immune responses at both systemic and mucosal levels to induce broad-spectrum and long-lasting immunity. Therefore, to design a successful vaccine, it is essential to stimulate the mucosal as well as systemic immune responses. Successful oral vaccines need to overcome the harsh gastrointestinal environment such as the extremely low pH, proteolytic enzymes, bile salts as well as low permeability and the low immunogenicity of vaccines. In recent years, several delivery systems and adjuvants have been developed for improving oral vaccine delivery and immunogenicity. Formulation of vaccines with nanoparticles and microparticles have been shown to improve antigen stability, availability and adjuvanticity as well as immunostimulatory capacity, target delivery and specific release. This review discusses how nanoparticles (NPs) and microparticles (MPs) as oral carriers with adjuvant characteristics can be beneficial in oral vaccine development.

Niosomal Drug Delivery Systems for Ocular Disease-Recent Advances and Future Prospects

The eye is a complex organ consisting of several protective barriers and particular defense mechanisms. Since this organ is exposed to various infections, genetic disorders, and visual impairments it is essential to provide necessary drugs through the appropriate delivery routes and vehicles. The topical route of administration, as the most commonly used approach, maybe inefficient due to low drug bioavailability. New generation safe, effective, and targeted drug delivery systems based on nanocarriers have the capability to circumvent limitations associated with the complex anatomy of the eye. Nanotechnology, through various nanoparticles like niosomes, liposomes, micelles, dendrimers, and different polymeric vesicles play an active role in ophthalmology and ocular drug delivery systems. Niosomes, which are nano-vesicles composed of non-ionic surfactants, are emerging nanocarriers in drug delivery applications due to their solution/storage stability and cost-effectiveness. Additionally, they are biocompatible, biodegradable, flexible in structure, and suitable for loading both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs. These characteristics make niosomes promising nanocarriers in the treatment of ocular diseases. Hereby, we review niosome based drug delivery approaches in ophthalmology starting with different preparation methods of niosomes, drug loading/release mechanisms, characterization techniques of niosome nanocarriers and eventually successful applications in the treatment of ocular disorders.

Materials for Immunotherapy

Breakthroughs in materials engineering have accelerated the progress of immunotherapy in preclinical studies. The interplay of chemistry and materials has resulted in improved loading, targeting, and release of immunomodulatory agents. An overview of the materials that are used to enable or improve the success of immunotherapies in preclinical studies is presented, from immunosuppressive to proinflammatory strategies, with particular emphasis on technologies poised for clinical translation. The materials are organized based on their characteristic length scale, whereby the enabling feature of each technology is organized by the structure of that material. For example, the mechanisms by which i) nanoscale materials can improve targeting and infiltration of immunomodulatory payloads into tissues and cells, ii) microscale materials can facilitate cell-mediated transport and serve as artificial antigen-presenting cells, and iii) macroscale materials can form the basis of artificial microenvironments to promote cell infiltration and reprogramming are discussed. As a step toward establishing a set of design rules for future immunotherapies, materials that intrinsically activate or suppress the immune system are reviewed. Finally, a brief outlook on the trajectory of these systems and how they may be improved to address unsolved challenges in cancer, infectious diseases, and autoimmunity is presented.

Mannosylated nanocarriers mediated site-specific drug delivery for the treatment of cancer and other infectious diseases: A state of the art review

The non-modified nanocarriers-based therapies for the treatment of cancer and other infectious diseases enhanced the chemical stability of therapeutically active agents, protected them from enzymatic degradation and extended their blood circulation time. However, the lack of specificity and off-target effects limit their applications. Mannose receptors overexpressed on antigen presenting cells such as dendritic cells and macrophages are one of the most desirable targets for treating cancer and other infectious diseases. Therefore, the development of mannosylated nanocarrier formulation is one of the most extensively explored approaches for targeting these mannose receptors. The present manuscript gives readers the background information on C-type lectin receptors followed by the roles, expression, and distribution of the mannose receptors. It further provides a detailed account of different mannosylated nanocarrier formulations. It also gives the tabular information on most relevant and recently granted patents on mannosylated systems. The overview of mannosylated nanocarrier formulations depicted site-specific targeting, enhanced pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic profiles, and improved transfection efficiency of the therapeutically active agents. This suggests the bright future ahead for mannosylated nanocarriers in the treatment of cancer and other infectious diseases. Nevertheless, the mechanism behind the enhanced immune response by mannosylated nanocarriers and their thorough clinical and preclinical evaluation need to explore further.

Engineered Nanodelivery Systems to Improve DNA Vaccine Technologies

DNA vaccines offer a flexible and versatile platform to treat innumerable diseases due to the ease of manipulating vaccine targets simply by altering the gene sequences encoded in the plasmid DNA delivered. The DNA vaccines elicit potent humoral and cell-mediated responses and provide a promising method for treating rapidly mutating and evasive diseases such as cancer and human immunodeficiency viruses. Although this vaccine technology has been available for decades, there is no DNA vaccine that has been used in bed-side application to date. The main challenge that hinders the progress of DNA vaccines and limits their clinical application is the delivery hurdles to targeted immune cells, which obstructs the stimulation of robust antigen-specific immune responses in humans. In this updated review, we discuss various nanodelivery systems that improve DNA vaccine technologies to enhance the immunological response against target diseases. We also provide possible perspectives on how we can bring this exciting vaccine technology to bedside applications.

Biodegradable polymers for modern vaccine development

Most traditional vaccines are composed either of a whole pathogen or its parts; these vaccines, however, are not always effective and can even be harmful. As such, additional agents known as adjuvants are necessary to increase vaccine safety and efficacy. This review summarizes the potential of biodegradable materials, including synthetic and natural polymers, for vaccine delivery. These materials are highly biocompatible and have minimal toxicity, and most biomaterial-based vaccines delivering antigens or adjuvants have been shown to improve immune response, compared to formulations consisting of the antigen alone. Therefore, these materials can be applied in modern vaccine development.

Recent advances in non-ionic surfactant vesicles (niosomes): Fabrication, characterization, pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications

Development of nanocarriers for drug delivery has received considerable attention due to their potential in achieving targeted delivery to the diseased site while sparing the surrounding healthy tissue. Safe and efficient drug delivery has always been a challenge in medicine. During the last decade, a large amount of interest has been drawn on the fabrication of surfactant-based vesicles to improve drug delivery. Niosomes are self-assembled vesicular nano-carriers formed by hydration of non-ionic surfactant, cholesterol or other amphiphilic molecules that serve as a versatile drug delivery system with a variety of applications ranging from dermal delivery to brain-targeted delivery. A large number of research articles have been published reporting their fabrication methods and applications in pharmaceutical and cosmetic fields. Niosomes have the same advantages as liposomes, such as the ability to incorporate both hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds. Besides, niosomes can be fabricated with simple methods, require less production cost and are stable over an extended period, thus overcoming the major drawbacks of liposomes. This review provides a comprehensive summary of niosomal research to date, it provides a detailed overview of the formulation components, types of niosomes, effects of components on the formation of niosomes, fabrication and purification methods, physical characterization techniques of niosomes, recent applications in pharmaceutical field such as in oral, ocular, topical, pulmonary, parental and transmucosal drug delivery, and cosmetic applications. Finally, limitations and the future outlook for this delivery system have also been discussed.

Anionic versus cationic bilosomes as oral nanocarriers for enhanced delivery of the hydrophilic drug risedronate

Albeit its well known potency as a postmenopausal osteoporosis treatment, Risedronate suffers from poor oral bioavailability and high oral toxicity. This is the first work to assess the potential of bilosomes to address challenges of RS oral delivery. Furthermore, impact of integrating cationic moiety into bilosomes on intestinal digestability and toxicity of RS nanovesicles was first investigated in this article. Prepared formulations were optimized based on physicochemical properties, digestibility, intestinal permeation and local toxicity studies. Optimized preparations were prepared by reversed phase evaporation technique with three extrusion cycles and loaded by 10 mg/ml RS. Molar lipid to bile salt to cholesterol ratio was adjusted to 4:1:1 at pH 5. Addition of cholesterol had significantly improved bilosomes stability to digestive media. Results also revealed that permeation of anionic vesicles increased permeation by 1.5 times more than RS solution and reduced drug toxicity by 2 folds. On the other hand, Cationic bilosomes showed good stability in GIT fluids but their induced oral toxicity could limit their use. In conclusion, bilosomes are superior over liposomes regarding protection of delivery system from the damaging effect of external in digestive bile salts. In addition, it decreases toxicity issues of orally administered drugs.

Curcumin, Cardiometabolic Health and Dementia

Current research indicates curcumin [diferuloylmethane; a polyphenolic compound isolated from the rhizomes of the dietary spice turmeric (Curcuma longa)] exerts a beneficial effect on health which may be partly attributable to its anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. The aim of this review is to examine potential mechanisms of the actions of curcumin in both animal and human studies. Curcumin modulates relevant molecular target pathways to improve glucose and lipid metabolism, suppress inflammation, stimulate antioxidant enzymes, facilitate insulin signalling and reduce gut permeability. Curcumin also inhibits Aβ and tau accumulation in animal models and enhances mitochondria and synaptic function. In conclusion, in high-dose animal studies and in vitro, curcumin exerts a potential beneficial effect on cardiometabolic disease. However, human studies are relatively unconvincing. More intervention studies should be conducted with the new curcumin formulation with improved oral bioavailability.

Use of Curcumin, a Natural Polyphenol for Targeting Molecular Pathways in Treating Age-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases

Progressive accumulation of misfolded amyloid proteins in intracellular and extracellular spaces is one of the principal reasons for synaptic damage and impairment of neuronal communication in several neurodegenerative diseases. Effective treatments for these diseases are still lacking but remain the focus of much active investigation. Despite testing several synthesized compounds, small molecules, and drugs over the past few decades, very few of them can inhibit aggregation of amyloid proteins and lessen their neurotoxic effects. Recently, the natural polyphenol curcumin (Cur) has been shown to be a promising anti-amyloid, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective agent for several neurodegenerative diseases. Because of its pleotropic actions on the central nervous system, including preferential binding to amyloid proteins, Cur is being touted as a promising treatment for age-related brain diseases. Here, we focus on molecular targeting of Cur to reduce amyloid burden, rescue neuronal damage, and restore normal cognitive and sensory motor functions in different animal models of neurodegenerative diseases. We specifically highlight Cur as a potential treatment for Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, and prion diseases. In addition, we discuss the major issues and limitations of using Cur for treating these diseases, along with ways of circumventing those shortcomings. Finally, we provide specific recommendations for optimal dosing with Cur for treating neurological diseases.

Nanoparticles and Controlled Delivery for Bioactive Compounds: Outlining Challenges for New "Smart-Foods" for Health

Nanotechnology is a field of research that has been stressed as a very valuable approach for the prevention and treatment of different human health disorders. This has been stressed as a delivery system for the therapeutic fight against an array of pathophysiological situations. Actually, industry has applied this technology in the search for new oral delivery alternatives obtained upon the modification of the solubility properties of bioactive compounds. Significant works have been made in the last years for testing the input that nanomaterials and nanoparticles provide for an array of pathophysiological situations. In this frame, this review addresses general questions concerning the extent to which nanoparticles offer alternatives that improve therapeutic value, while avoid toxicity, by releasing bioactive compounds specifically to target tissues affected by specific chemical and pathophysiological settings. In this regard, to date, the contribution of nanoparticles to protect encapsulated bioactive compounds from degradation as a result of gastrointestinal digestion and cellular metabolism, to enable their release in a controlled manner, enhancing biodistribution of bioactive compounds, and to allow them to target those tissues affected by biological disturbances has been demonstrated.

Development of Adjuvanted Solid Fat Nanoemulsions for Pulmonary Hepatitis B Vaccination

Pulmonary vaccination is one of the most promising routes for immunization owing to its noninvasive nature and induction of strong mucosal immunity and systemic response. In the present study, recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen loaded solid fat nanoemulsions (SFNs) as carrier system and monophosphoryl lipid A as an adjuvant-carrier system was prepared and evaluated as multiadjuvanted vaccine system for deep pulmonary vaccination. Deposition and clearance from the deep lung of rats were determined by gamma scintigraphy. Biodistribution of SFNs was determined by the live animal imaging system. SFNs dispersion showed slower clearance as compared with sodium pertechnetate control solution (^∗∗∗p <0.001) from the pulmonary region due to the virtue of particulate and hydrophobic nature of formulations. Humoral (sIgA and IgG) and cellular (IL-2 and IF-γ) immune responses were found to be significant (^∗∗∗p <0.001) when compared with naïve antigen (recombinant surface antigen without any excipient) solution. Data indicate that deep pulmonary immunization offers a stronger immune response with balanced humoral, mucosal, and cellular immunization, which further needs to be tested in higher animals to support this hypothesis for clinical translation of this so far neglected yet potential target tissue for immunization.

The Role of Self-Assembling Lipid Molecules in Vaccination

The advent of vaccines represents one of the most significant advances in medical history. The protection provided by vaccines has greatly contributed in reducing the number of cases of infections and most notably to the eradication of small pox. A large number of new technologies and approaches in vaccine development are currently being investigated with the goal of providing the basis for the next generation of prophylactics against an ever-expanding list of emerging and reemerging pathogens. In this chapter, we will focus on the role of lipids and lipid self-assembling vesicles in new and promising vaccination approaches. We will start by describing how lipids can induce activation of the innate immune system and focus on some lipid-derived vaccine adjuvants. Next, we will review current lipid-based self-assembling particles used as vaccine platforms, specifically liposomes and virus-like particles, and how virus-like particles have facilitated research of highly pathogenic viruses such as Ebola.

Nanomaterials for transdermal drug delivery: beyond the state of the art of liposomal structures

A wide range of biomedical materials have been proposed to meet the different needs for controlled oral or intravenous drug delivery. The advantages of oral delivery such as self-administration of a pre-determined drug dose at defined time intervals makes it the most convenient means for the delivery of small molecular drugs. It fails however to delivery therapeutic macromolecules due to rapid degradation in the stomach and size-limited transport across the epithelium. The primary mode of administration of macromolecules is presently via injection. This administration mode is not without limitations, as the invasive nature of injections elicits pain and decreases patients' compliance. Alternative routes for drug delivery have been looked for, one being the skin. Delivery of drugs via the skin is based on the therapeutics penetrating the stratum corneum (SC) with the advantage of overcoming first-pass metabolism of drugs, to deliver drugs with a short-half-life time more easily and to eliminate frequent administrations to maintain constant drug delivery. The transdermal market still remains limited to a narrow range of drugs. The low permeability of the SC to water-soluble and macromolecular drugs poses significant challenges to transdermal administration via passive diffusion through the skin, as is the case for all topically administered drug formulations intended to bring the therapeutic into the general circulation. To widen the scope of drugs for transdermal delivery, new procedures to enhance skin permeation to hydrophilic drugs and macromolecules are under development. Next to the integration of skin enhancers into pharmaceutical formulations, nanoparticles based on lipid carriers have been widely considered and reviewed. While being briefly reviewed here, the main focus of this article is on current advancements using polymeric and metallic nanoparticles. Next to these passive technologies, the handful of active technologies for local and systemic transdermal drug delivery will be discussed and put into perspective. While passive approaches dominate the literature and the transdermal market, active delivery based on microneedles or iontophoresis approaches have shown great promise for transdermal drug delivery and have entered the market, in the last decade. This review gives an overall idea of the current activities in this field.

In vitro and in vivo investigation for optimization of niosomal ability for sustainment and bioavailability enhancement of diltiazem after nasal administration

Diltiazem hydrochloride (DTZ) is a calcium channel antagonist depicted by extensive first pass metabolism and low oral bioavailability. The aim of this work was to develop niosomes for potential nasal delivery of DTZ. Niosomes protect hydrophilic drugs inside their core while nasal route offers both rapid onset and evasion of first-pass metabolism. Niosomes were prepared using a combination of Span 60 or Brij-52 with cholesterol (CHOL) in different molar ratios followed by determination of entrapment efficiency, particle size and in vitro drug release. A parallel design was adopted to evaluate the pharmacokinetic performance of DTZ-loaded niosomes in male Wistar rats. Non-compartmental analysis was performed where Cmax, Tmax, t1/2, MRT, area under the release curve (AUC) and Ke were assessed. The prepared niosomes were spherical with mean particle size 0.82-1.59 μm. Span 60-cholesterol niosomes (1:1 molar ratio) showed the highest entrapment and release efficiencies. In vivo study revealed an increase in MRT, t1/2 and AUC with a decrease in Ke. In conclusion, nasal niosomal formulation of DTZ expressed suitable pharmacokinetic parameters and bioavailability through prolonged duration of action inside the body as well as low rate of elimination depicting a promising alternate to the conventional oral route.

C-Type lectin receptor(s)-targeted nanoliposomes: an intelligent approach for effective cancer immunotherapy

Aim: The purpose of present approach is to target C-Type lectin (CTL) receptors for preferential uptake by the macrophages/dendritic cells and improving the cross-presentation of ovalbumin. Materials & methods: Conventional and engineered nanoliposomes (MPNLs) were fabricated and extensively characterized. The nanoliposome(s) was spherical in shape; and their ζ potential, size and ovalbumin loading efficiency were recorded to be 268 ± 4.15 nm, 23.4 ± 0.35 mV, 46.65 ± 1.84%, respectively. Results: The findings demonstrate that MPNLs significantly improved the antigen uptake and its cross-presentation to evoke Th CD8+ cell-mediated cellular immunity. Conclusion: In a nutshell, this engineered approach mannose surface modification for active targeting to dendritic cells/macrophages and pH-dependent quick endosomal antigen release is a promising system for efficient cancer immunotherapy.

Chitosan-zein nano-in-microparticles capable of mediating in vivo transgene expression following oral delivery

The oral route is an attractive delivery route for the administration of DNA-based therapeutics, specifically for applications in gene therapy and DNA vaccination. However, oral DNA delivery is complicated by the harsh and variable conditions encountered throughout gastrointestinal (GI) transit, leading to degradation of the delivery vector and DNA cargo, and subsequent inefficient delivery to target cells. In this work, we demonstrate the development and optimization of a hybrid-dual particulate delivery system consisting of two natural biomaterials, zein (ZN) and chitosan (CS), to mediate oral DNA delivery. Chitosan-Zein Nano-in-Microparticles (CS-ZN-NIMs), consisting of core Chitosan/DNA nanoparticles (CS/DNA NPs) prepared by ionic gelation with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP), further encapsulated in ZN microparticles, were formulated using a water-in-oil emulsion (W/O). The resulting particles exhibited high CS/DNA NP loading and encapsulation within ZN microparticles. DNA release profiles in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) were improved compared to un-encapsulated CS/DNA NPs. Further, site-specific degradation of the outer ZN matrix and release of transfection competent CS/DNA NPs occurred in simulated intestinal conditions with CS/DNA NP cores successfully mediating transfection in vitro. Finally, CS-ZN-NIMs encoding GFP delivered by oral gavage in vivo induced the production of anti-GFP IgA antibodies, demonstrating in vivo transfection and expression. Together, these results demonstrate the successful formulation of CS-ZN-NIMs and their potential to improve oral gene delivery through improved protection and controlled release of DNA cargo.

Non-Ionic Surfactant Vesicles (Niosomes) as New Drug Delivery Systems

Lipid vesicular systems composed of hydrated amphihiles with or without bilayer inducing agents such as cholesterol. On the basis of used amphiphilic molecule different nomenclature are used as liposomes, ufasomes and niosomes. Nonionic surfactants with mono-, di- or trialkyl chains form niosomes which are lipid vesicles with more chemical stability in comparison with phospholipids of liposomes. Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic chemicals can be encapsulated in niosomes as a new drug delivery system. This drug carrier system could have administered via injection, oral, pulmonary, vaginal, rectal, ophthalmic, nasal or transdermal routes with penetration enhancing potential. This chapter presents a detailed explain about niosome forming components, methods of preparation and routes of administration. Many examples for drug delivery potential of niosomes are also available in this review. Vaccine adjuvant and genetic substances vector capabilities are not given here.

Vaccine Adjuvant Nanotechnologies

The increasing sophistication of vaccine adjuvant design has been driven by improved understanding of the importance of nanoscale features of adjuvants to their immunological function. Newly available advanced nanomanufacturing techniques now allow very precise control of adjuvant particle size, shape, texture, and surface chemistry. Novel adjuvant concepts include self-assembling particles and targeted immune delivery. These individual concepts can be combined to create a single integrated vaccine nanoparticle-combining antigen, adjuvants, and DC-targeting elements. In the process, the concept of an adjuvant has broadened to include not only immune-stimulatory substances but also any design features that enhance the immune response against the relevant vaccine antigen. The modern definition of an adjuvant includes not only classical immune stimulators but also any aspects of particle size, shape, and surface chemistry that enhance vaccine immunogenicity. It even includes purely physical processes such as texturing of particle surfaces to maximize immunogenicity. Looking forward, adjuvants will increasingly be seen not as separate add-on items but as wholly integrated elements of a complete vaccine delivery package. Hence, vaccine systems will increasingly approach the complexity and sophistication of pathogens themselves, incorporating highly specific particle properties, contents, and behaviors, all designed to maximize immune system recognition and drive the immune response in the specific direction that affords maximal protection.

Non-Ionic Surfactant Vesicles (Niosomes) as New Drug Delivery Systems

Lipid vesicular systems composed of hydrated amphihiles with or without bilayer inducing agents such as cholesterol. On the basis of used amphiphilic molecule different nomenclature are used as liposomes, ufasomes and niosomes. Nonionic surfactants with mono-, di- or trialkyl chains form niosomes which are lipid vesicles with more chemical stability in comparison with phospholipids of liposomes. Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic chemicals can be encapsulated in niosomes as a new drug delivery system. This drug carrier system could have administered via injection, oral, pulmonary, vaginal, rectal, ophthalmic, nasal or transdermal routes with penetration enhancing potential. This chapter presents a detailed explain about niosome forming components, methods of preparation and routes of administration. Many examples for drug delivery potential of niosomes are also available in this review. Vaccine adjuvant and genetic substances vector capabilities are not given here.

Immunological evaluation of colonic delivered Hepatitis B surface antigen loaded TLR-4 agonist modified solid fat nanoparticles

Hepatitis B is one of the leading liver diseases and remains a major global health problem. Currently available vaccines provide protection but often results in weaker/minimal mucosal immunity. Thus the present study is devoted to the development and in-vivo exploration of the colonically delivered biomimetic nanoparticles which capably enhance humoral as well as cellular immune response. In present work, Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) entrapped nanoparticles containing Monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) (HB+L-NP) were prepared by solvent evaporation method and characterized for particle size (~210nm), shape, zeta potential (-24mV±0.68), entrapment efficiency (58.45±1.68%), in-vitro release and antigen integrity. Dose escalation study was done to confirm prophylactic immune response following defined doses of prepared nanoparticulate formulations with or without MPLA. Intramuscular administered alum based marketed HBsAg (Genevac B) was used as standard (10μg) and were able to induce significant systemic (IgG) but remarkably low mucosal immune (IgA) response. Notably, HB+L-NP (0.5ml-10μg) induced strong systemic and robust mucosal immunity (510 and 470 mIU/ml respectively, p<0.001) from which mucosal was more significant due to the involvement of Common Mucosal Immune System (CMIS). Likewise, significant cellular immune response was elicited by HB+L-NP through T-cell activation (mixed Th1 and Th2) as confirmed by significantly increased cytokines level (IL-2 and Interferon-γ) in spleen homogenates. This study supports that delivery of HBsAg to the colon may open new vista in designing oral vaccines later being one of most accepted route for potential vaccines in future.

Micro- and nanoparticulates for DNA vaccine delivery

DNA vaccination has emerged as a promising alternative to traditional protein-based vaccines for the induction of protective immune responses. DNA vaccines offer several advantages over traditional vaccines, including increased stability, rapid and inexpensive production, and flexibility to produce vaccines for a wide variety of infectious diseases. However, the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines delivered as naked plasmid DNA is often weak due to degradation of the DNA by nucleases and inefficient delivery to immune cells. Therefore, biomaterial-based delivery systems based on micro- and nanoparticles that encapsulate plasmid DNA represent the most promising strategy for DNA vaccine delivery. Microparticulate delivery systems allow for passive targeting to antigen presenting cells through size exclusion and can allow for sustained presentation of DNA to cells through degradation and release of encapsulated vaccines. In contrast, nanoparticle encapsulation leads to increased internalization, overall greater transfection efficiency, and the ability to increase uptake across mucosal surfaces. Moreover, selection of the appropriate biomaterial can lead to increased immune stimulation and activation through triggering innate immune response receptors and target DNA to professional antigen presenting cells. Finally, the selection of materials with the appropriate properties to achieve efficient delivery through administration routes conducive to high patient compliance and capable of generating systemic and local (i.e. mucosal) immunity can lead to more effective humoral and cellular protective immune responses. In this review, we discuss the development of novel biomaterial-based delivery systems to enhance the delivery of DNA vaccines through various routes of administration and their implications for generating immune responses.

Critical considerations for developing nucleic acid macromolecule based drug products

Protein expression therapy using nucleic acid macromolecules (NAMs) as a new paradigm in medicine has recently gained immense therapeutic potential. With the advancement of nonviral delivery it has been possible to target NAMs against cancer, immunodeficiency and infectious diseases. Owing to the complex and fragile structure of NAMs, however, development of a suitable, stable formulation for a reasonable product shelf-life and efficacious delivery is indeed challenging to achieve. This review provides a synopsis of challenges in the formulation and stability of DNA/m-RNA based medicines and probable mitigation strategies including a brief summary of delivery options to the target cells. Nucleic acid based drugs at various stages of ongoing clinical trials are compiled.

Mimicking microbial strategies for the design of mucus-permeating nanoparticles for oral immunization

Dealing with mucosal delivery systems means dealing with mucus. The name mucosa comes from mucus, a dense fluid enriched in glycoproteins, such as mucin, which main function is to protect the delicate mucosal epithelium. Mucus provides a barrier against physiological chemical and physical aggressors (i.e., host secreted digestive products such as bile acids and enzymes, food particles) but also against the potentially noxious microbiota and their products. Intestinal mucosa covers 400m(2) in the human host, and, as a consequence, is the major portal of entry of the majority of known pathogens. But, in turn, some microorganisms have evolved many different approaches to circumvent this barrier, a direct consequence of natural co-evolution. The understanding of these mechanisms (known as virulence factors) used to interact and/or disrupt mucosal barriers should instruct us to a rational design of nanoparticulate delivery systems intended for oral vaccination and immunotherapy. This review deals with this mimetic approach to obtain nanocarriers capable to reach the epithelial cells after oral delivery and, in parallel, induce strong and long-lasting immune and protective responses.

Nanocarriers: a versatile approach for mucosal vaccine delivery

Infectious agents generally use mucosal surfaces as entry port to the body thereby necessitating the need of development of mucosal vaccine as vaccination is important for disease avoidance and suppression. Vaccination through mucosal route is a promising strategy to elicit efficient immune response as parentally administered vaccines induce poor mucosal immunity in general. Safety, economy and stability are highly desired with vaccines and this can be achieved with use of delivery cargos. This review focuses on challenges related with mucosal vaccines and use of nanocarriers as suitable cargos to cater the antigen effectively to the desired site. The review also includes different factors which are to be considered regarding the performance of the nanocarriers and clinical status of these systems.

Development of stabilized glucomannosylated chitosan nanoparticles using tandem crosslinking method for oral vaccine delivery

Aim: The aim of this study was to develop a novel platform technology, comprising of stable glucomannosylated chitosan nanoparticles, for oral immunization. Materials & methods: Chitosan nanoparticles were stabilized by tandem crosslinking using tripolyphosphate followed by glutaraldehyde. Process and formulation variables were optimized using a ‘Box–Behnken’ design. The in vitro and in vivo performances were established in RAW 264.7 and BALB/c mice, respectively. Results: The lyophilized formulation was exceptionally stable in simulated biological media and the enclosed antigen was conformationally stable. The mechanistic understanding of glucomannosylated chitosan nanoparticles in RAW 264.7 revealed transcellular uptake via both mannose and glucose transporter-mediated endocytosis. Glucomannan modification resulted in significantly higher systemic (serum IgG titer), mucosal (secretory IgA) and cell-mediated (IL-2 and IFN-γ) immune responses in comparison with nonmodified chitosan nanoparticles. Conclusion: The present strategy is expected to contribute some novel tools for the oral delivery of numerous biomacromolecules.

Original submitted 8 August 2013; Revised submitted 15 December 2013

Nanotechnology-applied curcumin for different diseases therapy

Curcumin is a lipophilic molecule with an active ingredient in the herbal remedy and dietary spice turmeric. It is used by different folks for treatment of many diseases. Recent studies have discussed poor bioavailability of curcumin because of poor absorption, rapid metabolism, and rapid systemic elimination. Nanotechnology is an emerging field that is potentially changing the way we can treat diseases through drug delivery with curcumin. The recent investigations established several approaches to improve the bioavailability, to increase the plasma concentration, and to enhance the cellular permeability processes of curcumin. Several types of nanoparticles have been found to be suitable for the encapsulation or loading of curcumin to improve its therapeutic effects in different diseases. Nanoparticles such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, micelles, nanogels, niosomes, cyclodextrins, dendrimers, silvers, and solid lipids are emerging as one of the useful alternatives that have been shown to deliver therapeutic concentrations of curcumin. This review shows that curcumin's therapeutic effects may increase to some extent in the presence of nanotechnology. The presented board of evidence focuses on the valuable special effects of curcumin on different diseases and candidates it for future clinical studies in the realm of these diseases.

Niosomes from 80s to present: the state of the art

Efficient and safe drug delivery has always been a challenge in medicine. The use of nanotechnology, such as the development of nanocarriers for drug delivery, has received great attention owing to the potential that nanocarriers can theoretically act as "magic bullets" and selectively target affected organs and cells while sparing normal tissues. During the last decades the formulation of surfactant vesicles, as a tool to improve drug delivery, brought an ever increasing interest among the scientists working in the area of drug delivery systems. Niosomes are self assembled vesicular nanocarriers obtained by hydration of synthetic surfactants and appropriate amounts of cholesterol or other amphiphilic molecules. Just like liposomes, niosomes can be unilamellar or multilamellar, are suitable as carriers of both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs and are able to deliver drugs to the target site. Furthermore, niosomal vesicles, that are usually non-toxic, require less production costs and are stable over a longer period of time in different conditions, so overcoming some drawbacks of liposomes. The niosome properties are specifically dictated by size, shape, and surface chemistry which are able to modify the drug's intrinsic pharmacokinetics and eventual drug targeting to the areas of pathology. This up-to-date review deals with composition, preparation, characterization/evaluation, advantages, disadvantages and application of niosomes.

Implication of nanoparticles/microparticles in mucosal vaccine delivery

Although polymeric nanoparticles/microparticles are well established for the mucosal administration of conventional drugs, they have not yet been developed commercially for vaccine delivery. The limitation of the mucosal (particularly oral) route of delivery, including low pH, gastric enzymes, rapid transit and poor absorption of large molecules, has made mucosal vaccine delivery challenging. Nevertheless, several polymeric delivery systems for mucosal vaccine delivery are currently being evaluated. The polymer-based approaches are designed to protect the antigen in the gut, to target the antigen to the gut-associated lymphoid tissue or to increase the residence time of the antigen in the gut through bioadhesion. M-cell targeting is a potential approach for mucosal vaccine delivery, which can be achieved using M-cell-specific lectins, microbial adhesins or immunoglobulins. While many hurdles must be overcome before targeted mucosal vaccine delivery becomes a practical reality, this is a potential area of research that has important implications for future vaccine development. This review comprises various aspects that could be decisive in the development of polymer based mucosal vaccine delivery systems.

Development and characterization of surface modified PLGA nanoparticles for nasal vaccine delivery: effect of mucoadhesive coating on antigen uptake and immune adjuvant activity

In this study, the efficacy of mucoadhesive polymers, i.e., chitosan and glycol chitosan as a mucoadhesive coating material in nasal vaccine delivery was investigated. The Hepatitis B surface Antigen (HBsAg) encapsulated PLGA, chitosan coated PLGA (C-PLGA), and Glycol chitosan coated PLGA (GC-PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared. The formulations were characterized for particle size, shape, surface charge, and entrapment efficiency. The mucoadhesive ability of coated and non-coated NPs was determined using in vitro mucoadhesion and nasal clearance test. In addition, the systemic uptake and bio-distribution were also evaluated to understand the fate of NPs following nasal delivery. The immuno-adjuvant ability of various formulations was compared by measuring specific antibody titer in serum and secretory. The results indicated that PLGA NPs exhibit negative surface charge, whereas C-PLGA and GC-PLGA NPs exhibited positive surface charge. The GC-PLGA NPs demonstrated lower clearance and better local and systemic uptake compared to chitosan coated and uncoated PLGA NPs. In vivo immunogenicity studies indicated that GC-PLGA NPs could induce significantly higher systemic and mucosal immune response compared to PLGA and C-PLGA NPs. In conclusion, GC-PLGA NPs could be a promising carrier adjuvant for the nasal vaccine delivery for inducing a potent immune response at mucosal surface(s) and systemic circulation.