Oral administration of baicalin and geniposide induces regression of atherosclerosis via inhibiting dendritic cells in ApoE-knockout mice

Metabolomics and lipidomics combined with serum pharmacochemistry uncover the potential mechanism of Huang-Lian-Jie-Du decoction alleviates atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Atherosclerosis (AS) is one of the main cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) leading to an increase in global mortality, and its key pathological features are lipid accumulation and oxidative stress. Huang-Lian-Jie-Du decoction (HLJDD), a representative formula for clearing heat and detoxifying, has been shown to reduce aortic lipid plaque and improve AS. However, multiple components and multiple targets of HLJDD pose a challenge in comprehending its comprehensive mechanism in the treatment of AS.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was designed to illustrate the anti-AS mechanisms of HLJDD in an apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE-/-) mouse model from a metabolic perspective.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ApoE-/- mice were kept on a high-fat diet (HFD) to induce AS. Serum total cholesterol (TC), total triglyceride (TG), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels were determined to evaluate the influence of HLJDD on dyslipidemia. Oil red O was used to stain mouse aortic lipid plaques, and hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining was used to assess the pathological changes in the aortic roots. Metabolomics and lipidomics combined with serum pharmacochemistry were performed to research the HLJDD mechanism of alleviating AS.

RESULTS

In this study, HLJDD treatment improved serum biochemical levels and histopathological conditions in AS mice. A total of 6 metabolic pathways (arginine biosynthesis, glycerophospholipid, sphingolipid, arachidonic acid, linoleic acid, and glycerolipid metabolism) related to 25 metabolic biomarkers and 41 lipid biomarkers were clarified, and 22 prototype components migrating to blood were identified after oral administration of HLJDD.

CONCLUSION

HLJDD improved AS induced by HFD in ApoE-/- mice. The effects of HLJDD were mainly attributed to regulating lipid metabolism by regulating the metabolic pathways of glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, arachidonic acid, linoleic acid, and glycerolipids and reducing the levels of oxidative stress by upregulating arginine biosynthesis.

Immuno-modulatory role of baicalin in atherosclerosis prevention and treatment: current scenario and future directions

Atherosclerosis (AS) is recognized as a chronic inflammatory condition characterized by the accumulation of lipids and inflammatory cells within the damaged walls of arterial vessels. It is a significant independent risk factor for ischemic cardiovascular disease, ischemic stroke, and peripheral arterial disease. Despite the availability of current treatments such as statins, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors, and lifestyle modifications for prevention, AS remains a leading cause of morbidity and economic burden worldwide. Thus, there is a pressing need for the development of new supplementary and alternative therapies or medications. Huangqin (Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. [SBG]), a traditional Chinese medicine, exerts a significant immunomodulatory effect in AS prevention and treatment, with baicalin being identified as one of the primary active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine. Baicalin offers a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, including the regulation of immune balance, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and improvement of lipid metabolism dysregulation. Consequently, it exerts beneficial effects in both AS onset and progression. This review provides an overview of the immunomodulatory properties and mechanisms by which baicalin aids in AS prevention and treatment, highlighting its potential as a clinical translational therapy.

Beneficial effects of flavonoids on animal models of atherosclerosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Atherosclerosis is the main cause of cardiovascular diseases that seriously endanger human health. The existing treatment drugs are effective, but they have some side effects. Accumulating evidence suggests that flavonoids have attracted wide attention due to their multiple cardioprotective effects and fewer side effects. PubMed, Web of Science database, Embase, and Cochrane Library were searched for studies evaluating the effects of flavonoids against atherosclerosis. 119 studies published from August 1954 to April 2023 were included. Random-effects models were performed for synthesis. Compared with the control group, flavonoids significantly reduced longitudinal and cross-sectional plaque area. The findings indicated that flavonoids significantly reduced the concentrations of serum TC, TG, and LDL-C and increased serum HDL-C concentrations. Besides, flavonoids reduced the levels of circulating pro-inflammatory factors, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, and increased the serum IL-10 level. This study provides evidence for the potential cardiovascular benefits of flavonoids.

Promising Therapeutic Treatments for Cardiac Fibrosis: Herbal Plants and Their Extracts

Cardiac fibrosis is closely associated with multiple heart diseases, which are a prominent health issue in the global world. Neurohormones and cytokines play indispensable roles in cardiac fibrosis. Many signaling pathways participate in cardiac fibrosis as well. Cardiac fibrosis is due to impaired degradation of collagen and impaired fibroblast activation, and collagen accumulation results in increasing heart stiffness and inharmonious activity, leading to structure alterations and finally cardiac function decline. Herbal plants have been applied in traditional medicines for thousands of years. Because of their naturality, they have attracted much attention for use in resisting cardiac fibrosis in recent years. This review sheds light on several extracts from herbal plants, which are promising therapeutics for reversing cardiac fibrosis.

Untargeted lipidomics-based study reveals the treatment mechanism of Qingxue Bawei tablets on atherosclerotic in ApoE-/- mice

Qingxue Bawei (QXBW) tablets, a Mongolian medicine prescription, have proved to possess good lipid-lowering and antihypertensive effects in previous studies. However, the therapeutic effects and potential mechanisms of QXBW tablets on atherosclerosis (AS) have not been well studied yet. This study aimed to investigate the potential liver-protective mechanism of QXBW tablets on AS mice by hepatic lipidomics analysis. After 10 weeks of administration, serum and liver were collected for biochemical, histopathological, and lipid metabolomics analysis to evaluate the efficacy of the QXBW tablets on high-fat diet (HFD) induced mice. The experimental results indicated that QXBW tablets could ameliorate liver injury and inflammatory response in AS mice. Liver lipid data from different groups of mice were collected by UPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS, and a total of 22 potential biomarkers with significant differences between the model and control groups were identified finally, of which 16 potential biomarkers were back-regulated after the QXBW tablets intervention. These 22 potential differential metabolic markers were mainly involved in glycerolipid metabolism, glycerophospholipid metabolism, and cholesterol ester metabolism pathways. The results of this study showed that serum inflammatory factors, liver function indices, and lipid metabolism disorders were positively alleviated in AS mice after QXBW tablets treatment.

Research progress on the active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine in the intervention of atherosclerosis: A promising natural immunotherapeutic adjuvant

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease caused by disorders of lipid metabolism. Abnormal deposition of low-density lipoproteins in the arterial wall stimulates the activation of immune cells, including the adhesion and infiltration of monocytes, the proliferation and differentiation of macrophages and lymphocytes, and the activation of their functions. The complex interplay between immune cells coordinates the balance between pro- and anti-inflammation and plays a key role in the progression of AS. Therefore, targeting immune cell activity may lead to the development of more selective drugs with fewer side effects to treat AS without compromising host defense mechanisms. At present, an increasing number of studies have found that the active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) can regulate the function of immune cells in multiple ways to against AS, showing great potential for the treatment of AS and promising clinical applications. In this paper, we review the mechanisms of immune cell action in AS lesions and the potential targets and/or pathways for immune cell regulation by the active ingredients of TCM to promote the understanding of the immune system interactions of AS and provide a relevant basis for the use of active ingredients of TCM as natural adjuvants for AS immunotherapy.

Natural Monoterpenes as Potential Therapeutic Agents against Atherosclerosis

Traditional herbal medicines based on natural products play a pivotal role in preventing and managing atherosclerotic diseases, which are among the leading causes of death globally. Monoterpenes are a large class of naturally occurring compounds commonly found in many aromatic and medicinal plants. Emerging evidence has shown that monoterpenes have many biological properties, including cardioprotective effects. Remarkably, an increasing number of studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potential of natural monoterpenes to protect against the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. These findings shed light on developing novel effective antiatherogenic drugs from these compounds. Herein, we provide an overview of natural monoterpenes' effects on atherogenesis and the underlying mechanisms. Monoterpenes have pleiotropic and multitargeted pharmacological properties by interacting with various cell types and intracellular molecular pathways involved in atherogenesis. These properties confer remarkable advantages in managing atherosclerosis, which has been recognized as a multifaceted vascular disease. We also discuss limitations in the potential clinical application of monoterpenes as therapeutic agents against atherosclerosis. We propose perspectives to give new insights into future preclinical research and clinical practice regarding natural monoterpenes.

Baicalein self-microemulsion based on drug-phospholipid complex for the alleviation of cytokine storm

Cytokine storm is a phenomenon whereby the overreaction of the human immune system leads to the release of inflammatory cytokines, which can lead to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. At present, the existing drugs for the treatment of cytokine storm have limited efficacy and severe adverse effects. Here, we report a lymphatic targeting self-microemulsifying drug delivery system containing baicalein to effectively inhibit cytokine storm. Baicalein self-microemulsion with phospholipid complex as an intermediate carrier (BAPC-SME) prepared in this study could be spontaneously emulsified to form 12-nm oil-in-water nanoemulsion after administration. And then BAPC-SME underwent uptake by enterocyte through endocytosis mediated by lipid valve and clathrin, and had obvious characteristics of mesenteric lymph node targeting distribution. Oral administration of BAPC-SME could significantly inhibit the increase in plasma levels of 14 cytokines: TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-γ, MCP-1, IL-17A, IL-27, IL-1α, GM-CSF, MIG, IFN-β, IL-12, MIP-3α, IL-23, and RANTES in mice experiencing systemic cytokine storm. BAPC-SME could also significantly improve the pathological injury and inflammatory cell infiltration of lung tissue in mice experiencing local cytokine storm. This study does not only provide a new lymphatic targeted drug delivery strategy for the treatment of cytokine storm but also has great practical significance for the clinical development of baicalein self-microemulsion therapies for cytokine storm.

Updated Pharmacological Effects, Molecular Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Potential of Natural Product Geniposide

At present, the potential of natural products in new drug development has attracted more and more scientists’ attention, and natural products have become an important source for the treatment of various diseases or important lead compounds. Geniposide, as a novel iridoid glycoside compound, is an active natural product isolated from the herb Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (GJ) for the first time; it is also the main active component of GJ. Recent studies have found that geniposide has multiple pharmacological effects and biological activities, including hepatoprotective activity, an anti-osteoporosis effect, an antitumor effect, an anti-diabetic effect, ananti-myocardial dysfunction effect, a neuroprotective effect, and other protective effects. In this study, the latest research progress of the natural product geniposide is systematically described, and the pharmacological effects, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of geniposide are also summarized and discussed comprehensively. We also emphasize the major pathways modulated by geniposide, offering new insights into the pharmacological effects of geniposide as a promising drug candidate for multiple disorders.

A review of the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Fructus Gardeniae (Zhi-zi)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fructus Gardeniae (FG) is the dried fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (GjE), which belongs to the family Rubiaceae. FG has a long history of use as a herb, and was originally recorded in Sheng Nong's herbal classic. FG has also been widely used as both medicine and food.

AIM OF STUDY

This review aimed to provide a systematic and comprehensive analysis of the current research progress of FG in terms of ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity, to provide new insights and extensive field of view for subsequent studies.

METHODS

Scientific databases, including CNKI, VIP (Chinese literature), PubMed, Science Direct, Elsevier and Google Scholar (English literatures) were searched to gather data about FG and its main active ingredients such as geniposide and genipin (only regarding toxicity).

RESULTS

Many chemical constituents have been identified from the fruit of GjE, including iridoids, terpenoids, flavonoids, organic acids, volatile oils and others. The constituents of different parts of FG and processed FG are different from those of whole FG. FG extract and its main active constituents have been reported to have pharmacological properties such as hepatoprotective, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-apoptotic and antitumor activities. However, an increasing number of studies have shown that FG induces multiple organ injury, especially causing hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity, which could increase the risk during clinical use. The available literature shows that geniposide, a major active component of FG and a critical marker for its quality, is associated with the pharmacology and toxicity of FG.

CONCLUSION

Although a large number of studies examining FG have been published, issues remain. In the aspect of FG's pharmacology, the traditional efficacy and modern pharmacological effects of FG should be combined, which to broadens clinical application prospects. In addition, few studies have assessed the toxicity of FG. Toxicity assessment of FG should tackle various aspects, including compatibility, processing and the symptom-based prescription theory, in addition to over-dosage or long-term use, for a reasonable clinical use.

NMR, LC-MS Characterization of Rydingia michauxii Extracts, Identification of Natural Products Acting as Modulators of LDLR and PCSK9

Rydingia michauxii (Briq.) Scheen and V.A.Albert (Lamiaceae) is used in Iranian traditional medicine to treat malaria, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, rheumatism and cardiovascular diseases. NMR and LC-DAD-MSⁿ analyses were used to establish extract composition and phenylethanoid, flavonoid glycosides, lignans, labdane diterpenes and iridoids were identified and quantified. The main constituents were isolated, and structures were elucidated based on NMR, polarimetric and MS measurements. A new natural compound, ent-labda-8(17),13-dien-18-glucopyranosyl ester-15,16-olide is described here. The effects of ent-labda-8(17),13-dien-18-oic acid-15,16-olide (1), ent-labda-8(17),13-dien-18-glucopyranosyl es-ter-15,16-olide (2), antirrhinoside (3), echinacoside (4), verbascoside (5), and apigenin 6,8-di-C-glucoside (6), on the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) and proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), were studied in the human hepatocarcinoma cell line Huh7. Among the six constituents, (3) showed the strongest induction of the LDLR (3.7 ± 2.2 fold vs. control) and PCSK9 (3.2 ± 1.5 fold vs. control) at a concentration of 50 µM. The in vitro observations indicated a potential lipid lowering activity of (3) with a statin-like mechanism of action.

Baicalin promotes the activation of brown and white adipose tissue through AMPK/PGC1α pathway

Obesity occurs when energy intake overtops energy expenditure. Promoting activation of brown adipose tissue (BAT) and white adipose tissue (WAT) has been proven a promising therapeutic strategy for obesity. Baicalin (BAI) has been shown to be protective for various animal models of cardiovascular diseases, such as pulmonary hypertension, atherosclerosis and myocardial hypertrophy. However, whether BAI could stimulate activation of BAT or browning of WAT remains unknown. Here we show that BAI limits weight gaining, ameliorates glucose tolerance, improves cold tolerance and promotes brown-like tissue formation in diet induced obesity mice model. BAI increases the mitochondrial copy number as judged by mtDNA detection. BAI also increases the expression of UCP1 and other classical browning-specific genes in BAT and WAT and cultured C3H10T1/2 adipocytes through a mechanism involving AMPK/PGC1α pathway. Collectively, our study established a role for BAI in regulating energy metabolism, which will provide new idea and theoretical basis for the treatment of obesity.

Untargeted metabolomics and lipidomics uncovering the cardioprotective effects of Huanglian Jiedu Decoction on pathological cardiac hypertrophy and remodeling

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

As a classic herbal prescription, Huanglian Jiedu Decoction (HLJDD) exhibits positive effects against cardiac dysfunction. However, its cardioprotective effects and potential mechanism(s) of action still need to be systematically investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to reveal the underlying therapeutic mechanism of HLJDD on transverse aortic constriction (TAC)-induced pathological cardiac hypertrophy and remodeling.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

TAC-induced cardiac hypertrophy and remodeling mice model was established to evaluate the therapeutic effects of HLJDD. Serum untargeted metabolomics and lipidomic profiling were performed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry coupled with multivariate statistical analyses.

RESULTS

Oral administration of HLJDD (2.5 g/kg/day, 5.0 g/kg/day) significantly improved the heart morphology, enhanced the heart function, and alleviated the accumulation of fibrosis in the interstitial space and the infiltration of inflammatory cells in TAC-stimulated mice. Serum untargeted metabolomics analysis showed that significant alterations were observed in metabolic signatures between the TAC-model and sham group. Principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis screened 59 differential metabolic features and 13 metabolites were identified. The disturbed metabolic pathways in TAC group mainly related to lipid metabolism. Further serum lipidomic profiling showed that most lipids including cholesterol esters, ceramides, glycerides, fatty acids and phospholipids were decreased in TAC group and these alterations were reversed after HLJDD intervention.

CONCLUSION

HLJDD alleviates TAC-induced pathological cardiac hypertrophy and remodeling, and its potential therapeutic mechanism involves the regulation of lipid metabolism.

Promising influences of Scutellaria baicalensis and its two active constituents, baicalin, and baicalein, against metabolic syndrome: A review

Metabolic syndrome is known as a group of metabolic abnormalities with features including central obesity, insulin resistance, hypercholesterolemia, hypertriglyceridemia, and hypertension as well as low level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol. Previous studies showed the ameliorating effects of Scutellaria baicalensis on metabolic syndrome parameters, including antidiabetic, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-obesity, and antihypertensive. In this review, we deeply and mechanistically evaluated different studies on the effect of S. baicalensis and its two major bioactive constituents, baicalin, and baicalein, on the critical components of metabolic syndrome, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, obesity, hypertension, and atherosclerosis. Scientific databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched in the English language until the end of June 2020. Accordingly, S. baicalensis, and its two major bioactive constituents, baicalin and baicalein, represent promising effects on the control of metabolic syndrome and its related disorders such as obesity, hyperlipidemia, atherosclerosis, diabetes, and their following complications. In summary, our findings show that S. baicalensis and its active constituents, baicalin and baicalein, by activation and upregulation of AMPK and PPAR-γ as the main signaling in the hemostasis of glucose and lipid metabolisms may be favorable candidates for the prevention and treatment of the metabolic syndrome.

The main bioactive compounds of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. for alleviation of inflammatory cytokines: A comprehensive review

Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi., a plant used in traditional Chinese medicine, has multiple biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor, antioxidant, and antibacterial effects, and can be used to treat respiratory tract infections, pneumonia, colitis, hepatitis, and allergic diseases. The main active substances of S. baicalensis, baicalein, baicalin, wogonin, wogonoside, and oroxylin A, can act directly on immune cells such as lymphocytes, macrophages, mast cells, dendritic cells, monocytes, and neutrophils, and inhibit the production of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α, and other inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and reactive oxygen species. The molecular mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of the active compounds of S. baicalensis include downregulation of toll-like receptors, activation of the Nrf2 and PPAR signaling pathways, and inhibition of the nuclear thioredoxin system and inflammation-associated pathways such as those of MAPK, Akt, NFκB, and JAK-STAT. Given that in addition to the downregulation of cytokine production, the active constituents of S. baicalensis also have antiviral and antibacterial effects, they may be more promising candidate therapeutics for the prevention of infection-related cytokine storms than are drugs having only antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory activities.

Regulatory Mechanisms of Baicalin in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Review

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) is the leading cause of high morbidity and mortality worldwide, which emphasizes the urgent necessity to develop new pharmacotherapies. In eastern countries, traditional Chinese medicine Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi has been used clinically for thousands of years. Baicalin is one of the main active ingredients extracted from Chinese herbal medicine S. baicalensis. Emerging evidence has established that baicalin improves chronic inflammation, immune imbalance, disturbances in lipid metabolism, apoptosis and oxidative stress. Thereby it offers beneficial roles against the initiation and progression of CVDs such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, myocardial infarction and reperfusion, and heart failure. In this review, we summarize the pharmacological features and relevant mechanisms by which baicalin regulates CVDs in the hope to reveal its application for CVDs prevention and/or therapy.

Baicalin ameliorates atherosclerosis by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice

BACKGROUND

NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome has been implicated in the development of atherosclerosis and several studies have suggested that inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome could be a potential therapeutic approach to treat atherosclerosis. Baicalin is a flavone glycoside with anti-inflammation, anti-oxidative activities. The inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation by baicalin has also been described. Therefore, the effects of baicalin on NLRP3 inflammasome activation and atherosclerosis were evaluated in present study.

METHODS

We established the apolipoprotein E-deficient atherosclerosis mice model. After baicalin treatment, the IL-1, IL-18, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and the plaque area was monitored. We also measured the NLRP3, ASC, caspase-1, ICAM-1, and VCAM-1 expression in atherosclerosis mice after baicalin treatment. We silenced NLRP3 by administration of lentivirus expressing NLRP3 shRNA to atherosclerosis mice and monitored the IL-1, IL-18, and ROS production, and NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

RESULTS

Baicalin remarkably inhibited the production of IL-1, IL-18, mitochondria ROS, total ROS, ICAM-1, and VCAM-1. Baicalin reduced the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome and suppressed its activation. Baicalin significantly reduced the plaque area. Silencing NLRP3 resulted in decreased production of IL-1, IL-18, mitochondria ROS, total ROS, ICAM-1, and VCAM-1, and inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

CONCLUSION

Baicalin ameliorated atherosclerosis by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome.

miR‑21/PTEN pathway mediates the cardioprotection of geniposide against oxidized low‑density lipoprotein‑induced endothelial injury via suppressing oxidative stress and inflammatory response

Oxidized low‑density lipoprotein (ox‑LDL)‑induced vascular endothelial damage, oxidative stress and inflammation play a vital role in the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis. Geniposide is the primary active ingredient from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis associated with anti‑oxidative properties and cardioprotective action. However, the therapeutic mechanism of geniposide in atherosclerosis remains unclear. Hence, the present study aimed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of geniposide in oxidative stress and inflammatory response during ox‑LDL injury in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), focusing particularly on the microRNA (miR)‑21/PTEN pathway. The results demonstrated that geniposide pretreatment significantly increased cell viability, decreased lactate dehydrogenase release, increased miR‑21 level and decreased PTEN expression under ox‑LDL condition. Subsequently, transfection with miR‑21 mimic enhanced the protection of geniposide on ox‑LDL‑induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis (mediated by the upregulation of apoptotic rate and caspase‑3 activity), whereas miR‑21 inhibitor reversed these effects of geniposide. In addition, geniposide resulted in an anti‑oxidant effect as evidenced by the decrease in reactive oxygen species generation, malondialdehyde content and NADPH oxidase 2 expression, and the increase in superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase activities in ox‑LDL‑treated HUVECs, which were exacerbated by miR‑21 mimic and reversed by miR‑21 inhibitor. Furthermore, geniposide mitigated the ox‑LDL‑induced inflammatory response, demonstrated by a downregulation of pro‑inflammatory cytokine (IL‑1β, IL‑6, and TNF‑α) levels and an upregulation of anti‑inflammatory cytokine (IL‑10) level. However, miR‑21 mimic enhanced, whereas miR‑21 inhibitor attenuated, these effects of geniposide. In conclusion, the present results indicated that geniposide protects HUVECs from ox‑LDL injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and inflammation, and that these effects are partly due to the enhancement of the miR‑21/PTEN pathway.

Geniposide alleviates atherosclerosis by regulating macrophage polarization via the FOS/MAPK signaling pathway

OBJECTIVE

To assess geniposide's effects in New Zealand rabbits with high-fat diet induced atherosclerosis and to explore the underpinning mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aorta histological changes were evaluated by intravenous ultrasound (IVUS) and H&E staining. Lipid accumulation in the aortic was quantified by Oil Red O staining. Then, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was carried out for detecting differentially expressed genes in rabbit high-fat diet induced atherosclerosis. The levels of the cytokines CRP, IL-1β and IL-10 were determined by ELISA. Protein levels of iNOS and Arg-1 were assessed by Western blot and immunohistochemical staining. The mRNA expression levels of NR4A1, CD14, FOS, IL1A, iNOS and Arg-1 were detected by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR).

RESULTS

Geniposide markedly reduced the degree of atherosclerotic lesions in aorta tissues. RNA-seq and qPCR demonstrated that NR4A1, CD14, FOS and IL1A mRNA amounts were overtly increased in New Zealand rabbits with high-fat diet induced atherosclerosis. Moreover, geniposide reduced iNOS (M1 phenotype) mRNA and protein amounts as well as IL-1β secretion, which were enhanced in New Zealand rabbits with high-fat diet induced atherosclerosis. Besides, Arg-1 (M2 phenotype) mRNA and protein amounts were significantly increased after geniposide treatment, as well as IL-10 secretion.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that geniposide could inhibit the progression of and stabilize atherosclerotic plaques in rabbits by suppressing M1 macrophage polarization and promoting M2 polarization through the FOS/MAPK signaling pathway.

Geniposide against atherosclerosis by inhibiting the formation of foam cell and lowering reverse lipid transport via p38/MAPK signaling pathways

Geniposide, the main medicinal ingredient of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, is known to be a resistant agent to atherosclerosis. Some reports its mechanism against atherosclerosis remains completely unclear. Herein, we have investigated the protective effect of geniposide against atherosclerosis as well as clarified the mechanisms related with inhibiting the formation of foam cells and lowering reverse lipid transport via p38/MAPK signaling pathways. Macrophage Raw264.7 was induced by lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) to form foam cell as a cell model. ApoE^-/- mice were fed with a high-fat diet for 16 weeks to cause atherosclerosis in carotid artery. After treatment with geniposide, CCK-8, oil red O stain, qRT-PCR and western blot were carried out to explore the effect of geniposide. Morphological changes, histological analyses were used to evaluate atherosclerosis in ApoE^-/- mice. Geniposide significantly reduced serum total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG) and LDL cholesterol levels in ApoE^-/- mice compared with vehicle control. Meanwhile, geniposide dose dependently inhibited the development of atherosclerosis in ApoE^-/- mice. Furthermore, geniposide observably inhibited the formation of foam cells induced by LPA, down-regulated the mRNA and protein levels of SR-A and up-regulated the mRNA and protein levels of ABCA1 or SR-B1 in vitro via inhibition of the p38MAPK and AKT signaling pathways. Our study shows that geniposide protected against atherosclerosis and inhibited the formation of foam cells by regulating the equilibrium on expression of diverse lipid transporters in cytomembrane which related with p38MAPK and AKT signaling pathways. Geniposide is a potential therapeutic drug for atherosclerosis.

Efficacy of Terpenoid in Attenuating Aortic Atherosclerosis in Apolipoprotein-E Deficient Mice: A Meta-Analysis of Animal Studies

Background

The apolipoprotein E knockout (ApoE -/-) mouse model is well established for the study of terpenoids in the prevention of atherosclerosis. Studies investigating the clinical benefit of terpenoids in humans are scarce. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the effects of terpenoid administration on atherosclerotic lesion area in ApoE -/- mice.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search using PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library databases was performed to identify studies that assessed the effects of terpenoids on atherosclerosis in ApoE -/- mice. The primary outcome was atherosclerotic lesion area, and study quality was estimated using SYRCLE's risk of bias tool.

Results

The meta-analysis included 25 studies. Overall, terpenoids significantly reduced atherosclerotic lesion area when compared to vehicle control (P<0.00001; SMD: -0.55; 95% CI: -0.72, -0.39). In terpenoid type and dose subgroup analyses, sesquiterpenoid (P=0.002; SMD -0.93; 95% CI: -1.52, -0.34), diterpenoid (P=0.01; SMD: -0.30; 95% CI: -0.54, -0.06), triterpenoid (P<0.00001; SMD: -0.66; 95% CI: -0.94, -0.39), tetraterpenoid (P<0.0001; SMD: -1.81; 95% CI: -2.70, -0.91), low dose (P=0.0001; SMD: -0.51; 95% CI: -0.76, -0.25), medium dose (P<0.0001; SMD: -0.48; 95% CI: -0.72, -0.24), and high dose (P=0.002; SMD: -1.07; 95% CI: -1.74, -0.40) significantly decreased atherosclerotic lesion area when compared to vehicle control. PROSPERO register number is CRD42019121176.

Conclusion

Sesquiterpenoid, diterpenoid, triterpenoid, and tetraterpenoid have potential as antiatherosclerotic agents with a wide range of doses. This systematic review provides a reference for research programs aimed at the development of terpenoid-based clinical drugs.

Diverse Pharmacological Activities and Potential Medicinal Benefits of Geniposide

Geniposide is a well-known iridoid glycoside compound and is an essential component of a wide variety of traditional phytomedicines, for example, Gardenia jasminoides Elli (Zhizi in Chinese), Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. (Duzhong in Chinese), Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch. (Dihuang in Chinese), and Achyranthes bidentata Bl. (Niuxi in Chinese). It is also the main bioactive component of Gardeniae Fructus, the dried ripe fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. Increasing pharmacological evidence supports multiple medicinal properties of geniposide including neuroprotective, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antidepressant-like, cardioprotective, antioxidant, immune-regulatory, antithrombotic, and antitumoral effects. It has been proposed that geniposide may be a drug or lead compound for the prophylaxis and treatment of several diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, diabetes and diabetic complications, ischemia and reperfusion injury, and hepatic disorders. The aim of the present review is to give a comprehensive summary and analysis of the pharmacological properties of geniposide, supporting its use as a medicinal agent.

Therapeutic Potential and Effective Components of the Chinese Herb Gardeniae Fructus in the Treatment of Senile Disease

Gardeniae fructus (GF), an evergreen Rubiaceae shrub, is one of the most commonly used Chinese herbs in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and has been used for over a thousand years. It is usually prescribed for the treatment of brain aging, vascular aging, bone and joint aging, and other age-related diseases. It has been demonstrated that several effective compounds of GF, such as geniposide, genipin and crocin, have neuroprotective or related activities which are involved in senile disease treatment. These bioactivities include the mitochondrion dysfunction, antioxidative activity, apoptosis regulation and an anti-inflammatory activity, which related to multiple signaling pathways such as the nuclear factor-κB pathway, AMP-activated protein kinase signaling pathway, and the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. To lay the ground for fully elucidating the potential mechanisms of GF in treating age-related pathologies, we summarized the available research conducted in the last fifteen years about GF and its effective components, which have been studied in vivo and in vitro

Atheroprotective effects and molecular targets of bioactive compounds from traditional Chinese medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has served the Chinese people since antiquity, and is playing an important role in today's healthcare. However, there has been controversy in the use of these traditional herbs due to unclear components and absence of scientific proof. As China plans to modernize traditional medicine, successful attempts to better understand the molecular mechanisms of TCM have been made by focusing on isolating active ingredients from these remedies. In this review, we critically examined the current evidence on atheroprotective effects of bioactive compounds from TCM using in vitro or in vivo models in the past two decades. A total of 47 active compounds were included in our review, which were introduced in the order of chemical structures, source, model, efficacy and mechanism. Notablely, this review highlighted the cellular and molecular mechanisms of these active compounds in prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis. Two compounds were also involved in double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials (RCTs). Besides, we introduced the legislations of the People's Republic of China ensuring quality and safety of products used in TCM. In summary, studies on bioactive compounds from TCM will provide a new approach for better management of atherosclerosis.

The Signaling Pathways Involved in the Antiatherosclerotic Effects Produced by Chinese Herbal Medicines

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are considered to be the predominant cause of death in the world. Chinese herb medicines (CHMs) have been widely used for the treatment of CVDs in Asian countries for thousands of years. One reason of high efficacy of CHMs in treating CVDs is attributed to their inhibition in atherosclerosis (AS) development, a critical contributor to CVDs occurrence. Cumulative studies have demonstrated that CHMs alleviate atherogenesis via mediating pathophysiologic events involved in AS. However, there is deficiency in the summaries regarding antiatherogenic signal pathways regulated by CHMs. In this review, we focus on the signal cascades by which herb medicines and relevant extractives, derivatives, and patents improve proatherogenic processes including endothelium dysfunction, lipid accumulation, and inflammation. We mainly elaborate the CHMs-mediated signaling pathways in endothelial cells, macrophages, and vascular smooth muscle cells of each pathogenic event. Moreover, we briefly describe the other AS-related factors such as thrombosis, autophagy, immune response, and noncoding RNAs and effects of CHMs on them in the way of cascade regulation, which is helpful to further illustrate the molecular mechanisms of AS initiation and progression and discover newly effective agents for AS management.

Baicalin alleviates atherosclerosis by relieving oxidative stress and inflammatory responses via inactivating the NF-κB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic progressive disease related to inflammatory reaction. Baicalin is a flavonoid isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis georgi (Huang-qin) and exerts anti-inflammation effects in various diseases. Here, we investigated the protective effects of baicalin treatment and the potential mechanism in AS progression on AS mouse model. After ApoE-/- mice with high-lipid diets had received 12 weeks' of baicalin treatment at different concentrations, plasma lipids levels and atherosclerotic plaque areas in aorta were measured and there exhibited a prominent improvement in the baicalin treated mice compared with mice in AS model group. The expression of lipolysis related proteins (PPARα, CPT-1) was increased while the expression of adipogenesis related proteins (SREBP-1c, ACS) was decreased by baicalin treatment, indicating the anti-adipogenic effect of baicalin. Moreover, baicalin up-regulated the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT and GSH-Px) and down-regulated the activity of oxidative parameter MDA compared with AS model group, indicating the anti-oxidant effect of baicalin. The increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, sVE-cadherin) induced by AS were also decreased by baicalin treatment, indicating that baicalin acted as an anti-inflammation regulator in AS. In addition, we further explored the potential mechanism of baicalin treatment on AS, and found that baicalin treatment attenuated the high phosphorylation levels of JNK, p65, p-38 and ERK1/2 induced by AS, indicating that baicalin treatment inhibited the NF-κB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways in AS. In conclusion, baicalin treatment inhibited the NF-κB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways, thereby achieved its anti-adipogenic effect, anti-oxidant effect and anti-inflammation effect in a dose-dependent manner in AS.

Flavonols reduce aortic atherosclerosis lesion area in apolipoprotein E deficient mice: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Diets rich in flavonoids have been reported to have beneficial effects in the primary prevention of cardiovascular events. There are limited data, however, on the cardiovascular benefits of purified flavonoids. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine the reported effects of isolated flavonoids on aortic atherosclerosis in a mouse model. Medline, Pubmed, Science direct and Web of Science were searched to identify studies which examined the effect of isolated flavonoids on aortic atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E deficient mice. A meta-analysis was performed to determine the overall effect of the flavonoids, and sub-analyses were performed to compare the effects of the flavonols and flavan-3-ols. Eleven studies, which examined a total of 208 mice receiving a flavonoid and 126 control mice, were included. Overall the flavonoids significantly reduced aortic atherosclerosis (SMD 1.10, 95% CI 0.69, 1.51). Of the 18 flavonoid interventions examined 12 were flavonols and 3 were flavan-3-ols. Sub-analyses suggested that the flavonols (SMD 1.31, 95% CI 0.66, 1.91) but not the flavan-3-ols (SMD 0.33, 95% CI -0.19, 0.85) significantly decreased atherosclerosis area. Of the eleven studies, only one examined histological markers of atherosclerosis plaque stability. Most studies did not report blinding of outcome assessors or reproducibility of the primary outcome, and did not justify the sample size used and flavonoid dose administered. Based on the included studies, the flavonols appear to be the most effective flavonoids for reducing aortic atherosclerotic lesion area in apolipoprotein E deficient mice.

Immune and Metabolic Regulation Mechanism of Dangguiliuhuang Decoction against Insulin Resistance and Hepatic Steatosis

Dangguiliuhuang decoction (DGLHD) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula, which mainly consists of angelica, radix rehmanniae, radix rehmanniae praeparata, scutellaria baicalensis, coptis chinensis, astragalus membranaceus, and golden cypress, and used for the treatment of diabetes and some autoimmune diseases. In this study, we explored the potential mechanism of DGLHD against insulin resistance and fatty liver in vivo and in vitro. Our data revealed that DGLHD normalized glucose and insulin level, increased the expression of adiponectin, diminished fat accumulation and lipogenesis, and promoted glucose uptake. Metabolomic analysis also demonstrated that DGLHD decreased isoleucine, adenosine, and cholesterol, increased glutamine levels in liver and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) of ob/ob mice. Importantly, DGLHD promoted the shift of pro-inflammatory to anti-inflammatory cytokines, suppressed T lymphocytes proliferation, and enhanced regulatory T cells (Tregs) differentiation. DGLHD also inhibited dendritic cells (DCs) maturation, attenuated DCs-stimulated T cells proliferation and secretion of IL-12p70 cytokine from DCs, and promoted the interaction of DCs with Tregs. Further studies indicated that the changed PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and elevated PPAR-γ expression were not only observed with the ameliorated glucose and lipid metabolism in adipocytes and hepatocytes, but also exhibited in DCs and T cells by DGLHD. Collectively, our results suggest that DGLHD exerts anti-insulin resistant and antisteatotic effects by improving abnormal immune and metabolic homeostasis. And DGLHD may be a novel approach to the treatment of obesity-related insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis.

Baicalin Attenuates Cardiac Dysfunction and Myocardial Remodeling in a Chronic Pressure-Overload Mice Model

Background/Aims: Baicalin has been shown to be effective for various animal models of cardiovascular diseases, such as pulmonary hypertension, atherosclerosis and myocardial ischaemic injury. However, whether baicalin plays a role in cardiac hypertrophy remains unknown. Here we investigated the protective effects of baicalin on cardiac hypertrophy induced by pressure overload and explored the potential mechanisms involved. Methods: C57BL/6J-mice were treated with baicalin or vehicle following transverse aortic constriction or Sham surgery for up to 8 weeks, and at different time points, cardiac function and heart size measurement and histological and biochemical examination were performed. Results: Mice under pressure overload exhibited cardiac dysfunction, high mortality, myocardial hypertrophy, increased apoptosis and fibrosis markers, and suppressed cardiac expression of PPARα and PPARβ/δ. However, oral administration of baicalin improved cardiac dysfunction, decreased mortality, and attenuated histological and biochemical changes described above. These protective effects of baicalin were associated with reduced heart and cardiomyocyte size, lower fetal genes expression, attenuated cardiac fibrosis, lower expression of profibrotic markers, and decreased apoptosis signals in heart tissue. Moreover, we found that baicalin induced PPARα and PPARβ/δ expression in vivo and in vitro. Subsequent experiments demonstrated that long-term baicalin treatment presented no obvious cardiac lipotoxicity. Conclusions: The present results demonstrated that baicalin attenuates pressure overload induced cardiac dysfunction and ventricular remodeling, which would be due to suppressed cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, apoptosis and metabolic abnormality.

The immunoregulatory effects of Chinese herbal medicine on the maturation and function of dendritic cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Traditional Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) has a long-history for treatment of various human diseases including tumors, infection, autoimmune diseases in Asian countries, especially in China, Japan, Korea and India. CHM was traditionally used as water extracts and many Chinese herbs were considered to be good for health, which can regulate immune system to protect host from diseases. With the progress of technology, the components of CHM were identified and purified, which included polysaccharides, saponins, phenolic compounds, flavonoids and so on. Recently, accumulating evidence indicates that CHM and its components can regulate immune system through targeting dendritic cells (DCs). We hereby reviewed the immunoregulatory effects of CHM on the maturation, cytokine production and function of DCs. This should help to shed light on the potential mechanism of CHM to improve the usage and clinical efficacy of CHM.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literatures about the effects of CHM on DCs were searched in electronic databases such as Pubmed, Google Scholar and Scopus from 2000 to 2014. 'CHM', 'DC' or 'immune' were used as keywords for the searches. We only reviewed literatures published in English.

RESULTS

Over 600 publications were found about 'CHM&immune' and around 120 literatures about 'CHM&DC' were selected and reviewed in this paper. All publications are backed by preclinical or clinical evidences both in vitro and in vivo. Some CHM and its components promote the maturation, pro-inflammatory cytokine production and function of DCs and as the adjuvant enhance immune responses against tumor and infection. In contrast, other CHM and its components suppress the activation status of DCs to induce regulatory T cells, inhibit allergic and inflammatory responses, ameliorate autoimmune diseases, and prolong the allograft survival. A large body of evidence shows that CHM and its components regulate the activation status of DCs through TLRs, NF-κB, MAPK signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

This review provides useful information for understanding the mechanism of CHM on the treatment of diseases, which facilitates to improve the efficacy of CHM. Based on the immunoregulatory effects of CHM on DCs, it indicated that some CHM and its components could be use to develop adjuvant to enhance antigen-specific immune responses or tolerogenic adjuvant to generate antigen-specific immune tolerance.