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Bengochea M, Hassan B. Numerosity as a visual property: Evidence from two highly evolutionary distant species. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1086213. [PMID: 36846325 PMCID: PMC9949967 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1086213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Most animals, from humans to invertebrates, possess an ability to estimate numbers. This evolutionary advantage facilitates animals' choice of environments with more food sources, more conspecifics to increase mating success, and/or reduced predation risk among others. However, how the brain processes numerical information remains largely unknown. There are currently two lines of research interested in how numerosity of visual objects is perceived and analyzed in the brain. The first argues that numerosity is an advanced cognitive ability processed in high-order brain areas, while the second proposes that "numbers" are attributes of the visual scene and thus numerosity is processed in the visual sensory system. Recent evidence points to a sensory involvement in estimating magnitudes. In this Perspective, we highlight this evidence in two highly evolutionary distant species: humans and flies. We also discuss the advantages of studying numerical processing in fruit flies in order to dissect the neural circuits involved in and required for numerical processing. Based on experimental manipulation and the fly connectome, we propose a plausible neural network for number sense in invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bassem Hassan
- *Correspondence: Mercedes Bengochea, ; Bassem Hassan,
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2
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Vallortigara G, Lorenzi E, Messina A, Perrino M. Magnitudes for Nervous Systems: Theoretical Issues and Experimental Evidence. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/09637214221102146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Animals’ negotiations with the environment frequently involve quantitative assessments. However, it is largely unknown how different nervous systems can deal with information about magnitude and perform operations on it. Here we review some of the literature on this topic and discuss a few issues worthy of debate that can guide future research directions. First, we present experimental evidence suggesting that, in addition to the cortical (pallial) brain regions that are widely acknowledged to play a role in magnitude estimation, subcortical (more generally, subpallial) brain regions also play an important role. Second, we discuss interactions between different domains of magnitude and put forward a hypothesis to account for the directionality of associations between discrete and continuous magnitude. Finally, we suggest how the distinction between the concepts of number and discrete quantity should foster more attention to the role of sensory areas and circuits in assessing discrete quantities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elena Lorenzi
- Centre for Mind/Brain Science (CIMeC), University of Trento
| | - Andrea Messina
- Centre for Mind/Brain Science (CIMeC), University of Trento
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3
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Eckert J, Bohn M, Spaethe J. Does quantity matter to a stingless bee? Anim Cogn 2022; 25:617-629. [PMID: 34812987 PMCID: PMC9107420 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01581-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Quantitative information is omnipresent in the world and a wide range of species has been shown to use quantities to optimize their decisions. While most studies have focused on vertebrates, a growing body of research demonstrates that also insects such as honeybees possess basic quantitative abilities that might aid them in finding profitable flower patches. However, it remains unclear if for insects, quantity is a salient feature relative to other stimulus dimensions, or if it is only used as a "last resort" strategy in case other stimulus dimensions are inconclusive. Here, we tested the stingless bee Trigona fuscipennis, a species representative of a vastly understudied group of tropical pollinators, in a quantity discrimination task. In four experiments, we trained wild, free-flying bees on stimuli that depicted either one or four elements. Subsequently, bees were confronted with a choice between stimuli that matched the training stimulus either in terms of quantity or another stimulus dimension. We found that bees were able to discriminate between the two quantities, but performance differed depending on which quantity was rewarded. Furthermore, quantity was more salient than was shape. However, quantity did not measurably influence the bees' decisions when contrasted with color or surface area. Our results demonstrate that just as honeybees, small-brained stingless bees also possess basic quantitative abilities. Moreover, invertebrate pollinators seem to utilize quantity not only as "last resort" but as a salient stimulus dimension. Our study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on quantitative cognition in invertebrate species and adds to our understanding of the evolution of numerical cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Eckert
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
- Department of Behavioral Physiology and Sociobiology, Biozentrum, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Manuel Bohn
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Johannes Spaethe
- Department of Behavioral Physiology and Sociobiology, Biozentrum, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
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Segundo-Ortin M, Calvo P. Consciousness and cognition in plants. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2021; 13:e1578. [PMID: 34558231 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Unlike animal behavior, behavior in plants is traditionally assumed to be completely determined either genetically or environmentally. Under this assumption, plants are usually considered to be noncognitive organisms. This view nonetheless clashes with a growing body of empirical research that shows that many sophisticated cognitive capabilities traditionally assumed to be exclusive to animals are exhibited by plants too. Yet, if plants can be considered cognitive, even in a minimal sense, can they also be considered conscious? Some authors defend that the quest for plant consciousness is worth pursuing, under the premise that sentience can play a role in facilitating plant's sophisticated behavior. The goal of this article is not to provide a positive argument for plant cognition and consciousness, but to invite a constructive, empirically informed debate about it. After reviewing the empirical literature concerning plant cognition, we introduce the reader to the emerging field of plant neurobiology. Research on plant electrical and chemical signaling can help shed light into the biological bases for plant sentience. To conclude, we shall present a series of approaches to scientifically investigate plant consciousness. In sum, we invite the reader to consider the idea that if consciousness boils down to some form of biological adaptation, we should not exclude a priori the possibility that plants have evolved their own phenomenal experience of the world. This article is categorized under: Cognitive Biology > Evolutionary Roots of Cognition Philosophy > Consciousness Neuroscience > Cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Segundo-Ortin
- Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Faculty of Humanities, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Paco Calvo
- Minimal Intelligence Laboratory, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
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5
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Lorenzi E, Perrino M, Vallortigara G. Numerosities and Other Magnitudes in the Brains: A Comparative View. Front Psychol 2021; 12:641994. [PMID: 33935896 PMCID: PMC8082025 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.641994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to represent, discriminate, and perform arithmetic operations on discrete quantities (numerosities) has been documented in a variety of species of different taxonomic groups, both vertebrates and invertebrates. We do not know, however, to what extent similarity in behavioral data corresponds to basic similarity in underlying neural mechanisms. Here, we review evidence for magnitude representation, both discrete (countable) and continuous, following the sensory input path from primary sensory systems to associative pallial territories in the vertebrate brains. We also speculate on possible underlying mechanisms in invertebrate brains and on the role played by modeling with artificial neural networks. This may provide a general overview on the nervous system involvement in approximating quantity in different animal species, and a general theoretical framework to future comparative studies on the neurobiology of number cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Lorenzi
- Centre for Mind/Brain Science, CIMeC, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
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MaBouDi H, Barron AB, Li S, Honkanen M, Loukola OJ, Peng F, Li W, Marshall JAR, Cope A, Vasilaki E, Solvi C. Non-numerical strategies used by bees to solve numerical cognition tasks. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202711. [PMID: 33593192 PMCID: PMC7934903 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined how bees solve a visual discrimination task with stimuli commonly used in numerical cognition studies. Bees performed well on the task, but additional tests showed that they had learned continuous (non-numerical) cues. A network model using biologically plausible visual feature filtering and a simple associative rule was capable of learning the task using only continuous cues inherent in the training stimuli, with no numerical processing. This model was also able to reproduce behaviours that have been considered in other studies indicative of numerical cognition. Our results support the idea that a sense of magnitude may be more primitive and basic than a sense of number. Our findings highlight how problematic inadvertent continuous cues can be for studies of numerical cognition. This remains a deep issue within the field that requires increased vigilance and cleverness from the experimenter. We suggest ways of better assessing numerical cognition in non-speaking animals, including assessing the use of all alternative cues in one test, using cross-modal cues, analysing behavioural responses to detect underlying strategies, and finding the neural substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- HaDi MaBouDi
- Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4DP, UK
| | - Andrew B Barron
- Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4DP, UK.,Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Sun Li
- Department of Psychology, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Maria Honkanen
- Ecology and Genetics Research Unit, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Olli J Loukola
- Ecology and Genetics Research Unit, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Fei Peng
- Department of Psychology, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenfeng Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - James A R Marshall
- Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4DP, UK
| | - Alex Cope
- Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4DP, UK
| | - Eleni Vasilaki
- Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4DP, UK
| | - Cwyn Solvi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales 2109, Australia.,School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK
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Bortot M, Regolin L, Vallortigara G. A sense of number in invertebrates. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2020; 564:37-42. [PMID: 33280818 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.11.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Non-symbolic numerical abilities are widespread among vertebrates due to their important adaptive value. Moreover, these abilities were considered peculiar of vertebrate species as numerical competence is regarded as cognitively sophisticated. However, recent evidence convincingly showed that this is not the case: invertebrates, with their limited number of neurons, proved able to successfully discriminate different quantities (e.g., of prey), to use the ordinal property of numbers, to solve arithmetic operations as addition and subtraction and even to master the concept of zero numerosity. To date, though, the debate is still open on the presence and the nature of a «sense of number» in invertebrates. Whether this is peculiar for discrete countable quantities (numerosities) or whether this is part of a more general magnitude system dealing with both discrete and continuous quantities, as hypothesized for humans and other vertebrates. Here we reviewed the main studies on numerical abilities of invertebrates, discussing in particular the recent findings supporting the hypothesis of a general mechanism that allows for processing of both discrete (i.e., number) and continuous dimensions (e.g., space).
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Bortot
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy.
| | - Lucia Regolin
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.
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Rapp H, Nawrot MP. A spiking neural program for sensorimotor control during foraging in flying insects. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:28412-28421. [PMID: 33122439 PMCID: PMC7668073 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2009821117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Foraging is a vital behavioral task for living organisms. Behavioral strategies and abstract mathematical models thereof have been described in detail for various species. To explore the link between underlying neural circuits and computational principles, we present how a biologically detailed neural circuit model of the insect mushroom body implements sensory processing, learning, and motor control. We focus on cast and surge strategies employed by flying insects when foraging within turbulent odor plumes. Using a spike-based plasticity rule, the model rapidly learns to associate individual olfactory sensory cues paired with food in a classical conditioning paradigm. We show that, without retraining, the system dynamically recalls memories to detect relevant cues in complex sensory scenes. Accumulation of this sensory evidence on short time scales generates cast-and-surge motor commands. Our generic systems approach predicts that population sparseness facilitates learning, while temporal sparseness is required for dynamic memory recall and precise behavioral control. Our work successfully combines biological computational principles with spike-based machine learning. It shows how knowledge transfer from static to arbitrary complex dynamic conditions can be achieved by foraging insects and may serve as inspiration for agent-based machine learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Rapp
- Computational Systems Neuroscience, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Cologne 50674, Germany
| | - Martin Paul Nawrot
- Computational Systems Neuroscience, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Cologne 50674, Germany
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