NREM sleep stages specifically alter dynamical integration of large-scale brain networks

Transient brain activity dynamics discriminate levels of consciousness during anesthesia

The awake mammalian brain is functionally organized in terms of large-scale distributed networks that are constantly interacting. Loss of consciousness might disrupt this temporal organization leaving patients unresponsive. We hypothesize that characterizing brain activity in terms of transient events may provide a signature of consciousness. For this, we analyze temporal dynamics of spatiotemporally overlapping functional networks obtained from fMRI transient activity across different anesthetics and levels of anesthesia. We first show a striking homology in spatial organization of networks between monkeys and humans, indicating cross-species similarities in resting-state fMRI structure. We then track how network organization shifts under different anesthesia conditions in macaque monkeys. While the spatial aspect of the networks is preserved, their temporal dynamics are highly affected by anesthesia. Networks express for longer durations and co-activate in an anesthetic-specific configuration. Additionally, hierarchical brain organization is disrupted with a consciousness-level-signature role of the default mode network. In conclusion, large-scale brain network temporal dynamics capture differences in anesthetic-specific consciousness-level, paving the way towards a clinical translation of these cortical signature.

Specific and Nonuniform Brain States during Cold Perception in Mice

The quest to decode the complex supraspinal mechanisms that integrate cutaneous thermal information in the central system is still ongoing. The dorsal horn of the spinal cord is the first hub that encodes thermal input which is then transmitted to brain regions via the spinothalamic and thalamocortical pathways. So far, our knowledge about the strength of the interplay between the brain regions during thermal processing is limited. To address this question, we imaged the brains of adult awake male mice in resting state using functional ultrasound imaging during plantar exposure to constant and varying temperatures. Our study reveals for the first time the following: (1) a dichotomy in the response of the somatomotor-cingulate cortices and the hypothalamus, which was never described before, due to the lack of appropriate tools to study such regions with both good spatial and temporal resolutions. (2) We infer that cingulate areas may be involved in the affective responses to temperature changes. (3) Colder temperatures (ramped down) reinforce the disconnection between the somatomotor-cingulate and hypothalamus networks. (4) Finally, we also confirm the existence in the mouse brain of a brain mode characterized by low cognitive strength present more frequently at resting neutral temperature. The present study points toward the existence of a common hub between somatomotor and cingulate regions, whereas hypothalamus functions are related to a secondary network.

Frequency-dependent connectivity in large-scale resting-state brain networks during sleep

Functional connectivity (FC) during sleep has been shown to break down as non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep deepens before returning to a state closer to wakefulness during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. However, the specific spatial and temporal signatures of these fluctuations in connectivity patterns remain poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate how frequency-dependent network-level FC fluctuates during nocturnal sleep in healthy young adults using high-density electroencephalography (hdEEG). Specifically, we examined source-localized FC in resting-state networks during NREM2, NREM3 and REM sleep (sleep stages scored using a semi-automatic procedure) in the first three sleep cycles of 29 participants. Our results showed that FC within and between all resting-state networks decreased from NREM2 to NREM3 sleep in multiple frequency bands and all sleep cycles. The data also highlighted a complex modulation of connectivity patterns during the transition to REM sleep whereby delta and sigma bands hosted a persistence of the connectivity breakdown in all networks. In contrast, a reconnection occurred in the default mode and the attentional networks in frequency bands characterizing their organization during wake (i.e., alpha and beta bands, respectively). Finally, all network pairs (except the visual network) showed higher gamma-band FC during REM sleep in cycle three compared to earlier sleep cycles. Altogether, our results unravel the spatial and temporal characteristics of the well-known breakdown in connectivity observed as NREM sleep deepens. They also illustrate a complex pattern of connectivity during REM sleep that is consistent with network- and frequency-specific breakdown and reconnection processes.

Whole-brain multivariate hemodynamic deconvolution for functional MRI with stability selection

Conventionally, analysis of functional MRI (fMRI) data relies on available information about the experimental paradigm to establish hypothesized models of brain activity. However, this information can be inaccurate, incomplete or unavailable in multiple scenarios such as resting-state, naturalistic paradigms or clinical conditions. In these cases, blind estimates of neuronal-related activity can be obtained with paradigm-free analysis methods such as hemodynamic deconvolution. Yet, current formulations of the hemodynamic deconvolution problem have three important limitations: (1) their efficacy strongly depends on the appropriate selection of regularization parameters, (2) being univariate, they do not take advantage of the information present across the brain, and (3) they do not provide any measure of statistical certainty associated with each detected event. Here we propose a novel approach that addresses all these limitations. Specifically, we introduce multivariate sparse paradigm free mapping (Mv-SPFM), a novel hemodynamic deconvolution algorithm that operates at the whole brain level and adds spatial information via a mixed-norm regularization term over all voxels. Additionally, Mv-SPFM employs a stability selection procedure that removes the need to select regularization parameters and also lets us obtain an estimate of the true probability of having a neuronal-related BOLD event at each voxel and time-point based on the area under the curve (AUC) of the stability paths. Besides, we present a formulation tailored for multi-echo fMRI acquisitions (MvME-SPFM), which allows us to better isolate fluctuations of BOLD origin on the basis of their linear dependence with the echo time (TE) and to assign physiologically interpretable units (i.e., changes in the apparent transverse relaxation ΔR2∗) to the resulting deconvolved events. Remarkably, we demonstrate that Mv-SPFM achieves comparable performance even when using a single-echo formulation. We demonstrate that this algorithm outperforms existing state-of-the-art deconvolution approaches, and shows higher spatial and temporal agreement with the activation maps and BOLD signals obtained with a standard model-based linear regression approach, even at the level of individual neuronal events. Furthermore, we show that by employing stability selection, the performance of the algorithm depends less on the selection of temporal and spatial regularization parameters λ and ρ. Consequently, the proposed algorithm provides more reliable estimates of neuronal-related activity, here in terms of ΔR2∗, for the study of the dynamics of brain activity when no information about the timings of the BOLD events is available. This algorithm will be made publicly available as part of the splora Python package.

Memory ability and retention performance relate differentially to sleep depth and spindle type

Temporal interactions between non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep rhythms especially the coupling between cortical slow oscillations (SO, ∼1 Hz) and thalamic spindles (∼12 Hz) have been proposed to contribute to multi-regional interactions crucial for memory processing and cognitive ability. We investigated relationships between NREM sleep depth, sleep spindles and SO-spindle coupling regarding memory ability and memory consolidation in healthy humans. Findings underscore the functional relevance of spindle dynamics (slow versus fast), SO-phase, and most importantly NREM sleep depth for cognitive processing. Cross-frequency coupling analyses demonstrated stronger precise temporal coordination of slow spindles to SO down-state in N2 for subjects with higher general memory ability. A GLM model underscored this relationship, and furthermore that fast spindle properties were predictive of overnight memory consolidation. Our results suggest cognitive fingerprints dependent on conjoint fine-tuned SO-spindle temporal coupling, spindle properties, and brain sleep state.

Medial temporal lobe functional network architecture supports sleep-related emotional memory processing in older adults

Memory consolidation occurs via reactivation of a hippocampal index during non-rapid eye movement slow-wave sleep (NREM SWS) which binds attributes of an experience existing within cortical modules. For memories containing emotional content, hippocampal-amygdala dynamics facilitate consolidation over a sleep bout. This study tested if modularity and centrality-graph theoretical measures that index the level of segregation/integration in a system and the relative import of its nodes-map onto central tenets of memory consolidation theory and sleep-related processing. Findings indicate that greater network integration is tied to overnight emotional memory retention via NREM SWS expression. Greater hippocampal and amygdala influence over network organization supports emotional memory retention, and hippocampal or amygdala control over information flow are differentially associated with distinct stages of memory processing. These centrality measures are also tied to the local expression and coupling of key sleep oscillations tied to sleep-dependent memory consolidation. These findings suggest that measures of intrinsic network connectivity may predict the capacity of brain functional networks to acquire, consolidate, and retrieve emotional memories.

Characterizing brain stage-dependent pupil dynamics based on lateral hypothalamic activity

Pupil dynamics presents varied correlation features with brain activity under different vigilant levels. The modulation of brain dynamic stages can arise from the lateral hypothalamus (LH), where diverse neuronal cell types contribute to arousal regulation in opposite directions via the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). However, the relationship of the LH and pupil dynamics has seldom been investigated. Here, we performed local field potential (LFP) recordings at the LH and ACC, and whole-brain fMRI with simultaneous fiber photometry Ca2+ recording in the ACC, to evaluate their correlation with brain state-dependent pupil dynamics. Both LFP and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data showed various correlations to pupil dynamics across trials that span negative, null, and positive correlation values, demonstrating brain state-dependent coupling features. Our results indicate that the correlation of pupil dynamics with ACC LFP and whole-brain fMRI signals depends on LH activity, suggesting a role of the latter in brain dynamic stage regulation.

ProductGraphSleepNet: Sleep staging using product spatio-temporal graph learning with attentive temporal aggregation

The classification of sleep stages plays a crucial role in understanding and diagnosing sleep pathophysiology. Sleep stage scoring relies heavily on visual inspection by an expert, which is a time-consuming and subjective procedure. Recently, deep learning neural network approaches have been leveraged to develop a generalized automated sleep staging and account for shifts in distributions that may be caused by inherent inter/intra-subject variability, heterogeneity across datasets, and different recording environments. However, these networks (mostly) ignore the connections among brain regions and disregard modeling the connections between temporally adjacent sleep epochs. To address these issues, this work proposes an adaptive product graph learning-based graph convolutional network, named ProductGraphSleepNet, for learning joint spatio-temporal graphs along with a bidirectional gated recurrent unit and a modified graph attention network to capture the attentive dynamics of sleep stage transitions. Evaluation on two public databases: the Montreal Archive of Sleep Studies (MASS) SS3; and the SleepEDF, which contain full night polysomnography recordings of 62 and 20 healthy subjects, respectively, demonstrates performance comparable to the state-of-the-art (Accuracy: 0.867;0.838, F1-score: 0.818;0.774 and Kappa: 0.802;0.775, on each database respectively). More importantly, the proposed network makes it possible for clinicians to comprehend and interpret the learned spatial and temporal connectivity graphs for sleep stages.

Decoding cerebro-spinal signatures of human behavior: application to motor sequence learning

Mapping the neural patterns that drive human behavior is a key challenge in neuroscience. Even the simplest of our everyday actions stem from the dynamic and complex interplay of multiple neural structures across the central nervous system (CNS). Yet, most neuroimaging research has focused on investigating cerebral mechanisms, while the way the spinal cord accompanies the brain in shaping human behavior has been largely overlooked. Although the recent advent of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) sequences that can simultaneously target the brain and spinal cord has opened up new avenues for studying these mechanisms at multiple levels of the CNS, research to date has been limited to inferential univariate techniques that cannot fully unveil the intricacies of the underlying neural states. To address this, we propose to go beyond traditional analyses and instead use a data-driven multivariate approach leveraging the dynamic content of cerebro-spinal signals using innovation-driven coactivation patterns (iCAPs). We demonstrate the relevance of this approach in a simultaneous brain-spinal cord fMRI dataset acquired during motor sequence learning (MSL), to highlight how large-scale CNS plasticity underpins rapid improvements in early skill acquisition and slower consolidation after extended practice. Specifically, we uncovered cortical, subcortical and spinal functional networks, which were used to decode the different stages of learning with a high accuracy and, thus, delineate meaningful cerebro-spinal signatures of learning progression. Our results provide compelling evidence that the dynamics of neural signals, paired with a data-driven approach, can be used to disentangle the modular organization of the CNS. While we outline the potential of this framework to probe the neural correlates of motor learning, its versatility makes it broadly applicable to explore the functioning of cerebro-spinal networks in other experimental or pathological conditions.

Prediction of post-stroke motor recovery benefits from measures of sub-acute widespread network damages

Following a stroke in regions of the brain responsible for motor activity, patients can lose their ability to control parts of their body. Over time, some patients recover almost completely, while others barely recover at all. It is known that lesion volume, initial motor impairment and cortico-spinal tract asymmetry significantly impact motor changes over time. Recent work suggested that disabilities arise not only from focal structural changes but also from widespread alterations in inter-regional connectivity. Models that consider damage to the entire network instead of only local structural alterations lead to a more accurate prediction of patients' recovery. However, assessing white matter connections in stroke patients is challenging and time-consuming. Here, we evaluated in a data set of 37 patients whether we could predict upper extremity motor recovery from brain connectivity measures obtained by using the patient's lesion mask to introduce virtual lesions in 60 healthy streamline tractography connectomes. This indirect estimation of the stroke impact on the whole brain connectome is more readily available than direct measures of structural connectivity obtained with magnetic resonance imaging. We added these measures to benchmark structural features, and we used a ridge regression regularization to predict motor recovery at 3 months post-injury. As hypothesized, accuracy in prediction significantly increased (R 2 = 0.68) as compared to benchmark features (R 2 = 0.38). This improved prediction of recovery could be beneficial to clinical care and might allow for a better choice of intervention.

Functional networks in prolonged disorders of consciousness

Prolonged disorders of consciousness (DoC) are characterized by extended disruptions of brain activities that sustain wakefulness and awareness and are caused by various etiologies. During the past decades, neuroimaging has been a practical method of investigation in basic and clinical research to identify how brain properties interact in different levels of consciousness. Resting-state functional connectivity within and between canonical cortical networks correlates with consciousness by a calculation of the associated temporal blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal process during functional MRI (fMRI) and reveals the brain function of patients with prolonged DoC. There are certain brain networks including the default mode, dorsal attention, executive control, salience, auditory, visual, and sensorimotor networks that have been reported to be altered in low-level states of consciousness under either pathological or physiological states. Analysis of brain network connections based on functional imaging contributes to more accurate judgments of consciousness level and prognosis at the brain level. In this review, neurobehavioral evaluation of prolonged DoC and the functional connectivity within brain networks based on resting-state fMRI were reviewed to provide reference values for clinical diagnosis and prognostic evaluation.

Thalamocortical coherence and causality in different sleep stages using deep brain stimulation recordings

Previous research has shown an interplay between the thalamus and cerebral cortex during NREM sleep in humans, however the directionality of the thalamocortical synchronization is as yet unknown. In this study thalamocortical connectivity during different NREM sleep stages using sleep scalp electroencephalograms and local field potentials from the left and right anterior thalamus was measured in three epilepsy patients implanted with deep brain stimulation electrodes. Connectivity was assessed as debiased weighted phase lag index and granger causality between the thalamus and cortex for the NREM sleep stages N1, N2 and N3. Results showed connectivity was most prominently directed from cortex to thalamus. Moreover, connectivity varied in strength between the different sleep stages, but barely in direction or frequency. These results imply relatively stable thalamocortical connectivity during NREM sleep directed from the cortex to the thalamus.

Cross-Scale Dynamicity of Entropy and Connectivity in the Sleeping Brain

Introduction: The concept of local sleep refers to the phenomenon of local brain activity that modifies neural networks during unresponsive global sleep. Such network rewiring may differ across spatial scales; however, the global and local alterations in brain systems remain elusive in human sleep. Materials and Methods: We examined cross-scale changes of brain networks in sleep. Functional magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired from 28 healthy participants during nocturnal sleep. We adopted both metrics of connectivity (functional connectivity [FC] and regional homogeneity [ReHo]) and complexity (multiscale entropy) to explore the global and local functionality of the neural assembly across nonrapid eye movement sleep stages. Results: Long-range FC decreased with sleep depth, whereas local ReHo peaked at the N2 stage and reached its lowest level at the N3 stage. Entropy exhibited a general decline at the local scale (Scale 1) as sleep deepened, whereas the coarse-scale entropy (Scale 3) was consistent across stages. Discussion: The negative correlation between Scale-1 entropy and ReHo reflects the enhanced signal regularity and synchronization in sleep, identifying the information exchange at the local scale. The N2 stage showed a distinctive pattern toward local information processing with scrambled long-distance information exchange, indicating a specific time window for network reorganization. Collectively, the multidimensional metrics indicated an imbalanced global-local relationship among brain functional networks across sleep-wake stages.

Somatovisceral Convergence in Sleep-Wake Cycle: Transmitting Different Types of Information via the Same Pathway

Convergence of somatic and visceral inputs occurs at the levels of nervous system ranging from spinal cord to cerebral cortex. This anatomical organization gave explanation to a referred pain phenomenon. However, it also presents a problem: How does the brain know what information is coming for processing-somatic or visceral - if both are transferred by the same spinal cord fibers by means of the standard neuronal spikes? Recent studies provided evidence for cortical processing of interoceptive information largely occurring in sleep, when somatosensation is suppressed, and for the corresponding functional brain networks rearrangement. We suggest that convergent units of the spinal cord would be able to collectively provide mainly somatosensory information in wakefulness and mainly visceral in sleep, solving the puzzle of somatovisceral convergence. We recorded spiking activity from the spinal cord lemniscus pathway during multiple sleep-wake cycles in freely behaving rabbits. In wakefulness high increased spiking corresponded to movements. When animals stopped moving this activity ceased, the fibers remained silent during passive wakefulness. However, upon transition to sleep fibers began firing again. Analysis of spiking patterns of individual fibers revealed that in the majority of them spiking rates recovered in slow wave sleep. Thus, despite cessation of motion and a corresponding decrease of somatic component of the convergent signal, considerable ascending signaling occurs during sleep, that is likely to be visceral. We also recorded evoked responses of the lemniscus pathway to innocuous electrostimulation of the abdominal viscera, and uncovered the existence of two groups of responses depending upon the state of vigilance. Response from an individual fiber could be detected either during wakefulness or in sleep, but not in both states. Wakefulness-responsive group had lower spiking rates in wakefulness and almost stopped spiking in sleep. Sleep-responsive retained substantial spiking during sleep. These groups also differed in spike amplitudes, indicative of fiber diameter differences; however, both had somatic responses during wakefulness. We suggest a mechanism that utilizes differences in somatic and visceral activities to extract both types of information by varying transmission thresholds, and discuss the implications of this mechanism on functional networks under normal and pathological conditions.

An altered balance of integrated and segregated brain activity is a marker of cognitive deficits following sleep deprivation

Sleep deprivation (SD) leads to impairments in cognitive function. Here, we tested the hypothesis that cognitive changes in the sleep-deprived brain can be explained by information processing within and between large-scale cortical networks. We acquired functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans of 20 healthy volunteers during attention and executive tasks following a regular night of sleep, a night of SD, and a recovery nap containing nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Overall, SD was associated with increased cortex-wide functional integration, driven by a rise of integration within cortical networks. The ratio of within versus between network integration in the cortex increased further in the recovery nap, suggesting that prolonged wakefulness drives the cortex towards a state resembling sleep. This balance of integration and segregation in the sleep-deprived state was tightly associated with deficits in cognitive performance. This was a distinct and better marker of cognitive impairment than conventional indicators of homeostatic sleep pressure, as well as the pronounced thalamocortical connectivity changes that occurs towards falling asleep. Importantly, restoration of the balance between segregation and integration of cortical activity was also related to performance recovery after the nap, demonstrating a bidirectional effect. These results demonstrate that intra- and interindividual differences in cortical network integration and segregation during task performance may play a critical role in vulnerability to cognitive impairment in the sleep-deprived state.

Large-scale functional brain networks for consciousness

The generation and maintenance of consciousness are fundamental but difficult subjects in the fields of psychology, philosophy, neuroscience, and medicine. However, recent developments in neuro-imaging techniques coupled with network analysis have greatly advanced our understanding of consciousness. The present review focuses on large-scale functional brain networks based on neuro-imaging data to explain the awareness (contents) and wakefulness of consciousness. Despite limitations, neuroimaging data suggests brain maps for important psychological and cognitive processes such as attention, language, self-referential, emotion, motivation, social behavior, and wakefulness. We considered a review of these advancements would provide new insights into research on the neural correlates of consciousness.