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Huynh NPT, Osipovitch M, Foti R, Bates J, Mansky B, Cano JC, Benraiss A, Zhao C, Lu QR, Goldman SA. Shared patterns of glial transcriptional dysregulation link Huntington's disease and schizophrenia. Brain 2024; 147:3099-3112. [PMID: 39028640 PMCID: PMC11370805 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awae166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2023] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease and juvenile-onset schizophrenia have long been regarded as distinct disorders. However, both manifest cell-intrinsic abnormalities in glial differentiation, with resultant astrocytic dysfunction and hypomyelination. To assess whether a common mechanism might underlie the similar glial pathology of these otherwise disparate conditions, we used comparative correlation network approaches to analyse RNA-sequencing data from human glial progenitor cells (hGPCs) produced from disease-derived pluripotent stem cells. We identified gene sets preserved between Huntington's disease and schizophrenia hGPCs yet distinct from normal controls that included 174 highly connected genes in the shared disease-associated network, focusing on genes involved in synaptic signalling. These synaptic genes were largely suppressed in both schizophrenia and Huntington's disease hGPCs, and gene regulatory network analysis identified a core set of upstream regulators of this network, of which OLIG2 and TCF7L2 were prominent. Among their downstream targets, ADGRL3, a modulator of glutamatergic synapses, was notably suppressed in both schizophrenia and Huntington's disease hGPCs. Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing confirmed that OLIG2 and TCF7L2 each bound to the regulatory region of ADGRL3, whose expression was then rescued by lentiviral overexpression of these transcription factors. These data suggest that the disease-associated suppression of OLIG2 and TCF7L2-dependent transcription of glutamate signalling regulators may impair glial receptivity to neuronal glutamate. The consequent loss of activity-dependent mobilization of hGPCs may yield deficient oligodendrocyte production, and hence the hypomyelination noted in these disorders, as well as the disrupted astrocytic differentiation and attendant synaptic dysfunction associated with each. Together, these data highlight the importance of convergent glial molecular pathology in both the pathogenesis and phenotypic similarities of two otherwise unrelated disorders, Huntington's disease and schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen P T Huynh
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine and Department of Neurology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Mikhail Osipovitch
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rossana Foti
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Janna Bates
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine and Department of Neurology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Benjamin Mansky
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine and Department of Neurology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Jose C Cano
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine and Department of Neurology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Abdellatif Benraiss
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine and Department of Neurology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Chuntao Zhao
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Brain Tumor Center, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Q Richard Lu
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Brain Tumor Center, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Steven A Goldman
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine and Department of Neurology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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2
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Paryani F, Kwon JS, Ng CW, Jakubiak K, Madden N, Ofori K, Tang A, Lu H, Xia S, Li J, Mahajan A, Davidson SM, Basile AO, McHugh C, Vonsattel JP, Hickman R, Zody MC, Housman DE, Goldman JE, Yoo AS, Menon V, Al-Dalahmah O. Multi-omic analysis of Huntington's disease reveals a compensatory astrocyte state. Nat Commun 2024; 15:6742. [PMID: 39112488 PMCID: PMC11306246 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50626-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms underlying the selective regional vulnerability to neurodegeneration in Huntington's disease (HD) have not been fully defined. To explore the role of astrocytes in this phenomenon, we used single-nucleus and bulk RNAseq, lipidomics, HTT gene CAG repeat-length measurements, and multiplexed immunofluorescence on HD and control post-mortem brains. We identified genes that correlated with CAG repeat length, which were enriched in astrocyte genes, and lipidomic signatures that implicated poly-unsaturated fatty acids in sensitizing neurons to cell death. Because astrocytes play essential roles in lipid metabolism, we explored the heterogeneity of astrocytic states in both protoplasmic and fibrous-like (CD44+) astrocytes. Significantly, one protoplasmic astrocyte state showed high levels of metallothioneins and was correlated with the selective vulnerability of distinct striatal neuronal populations. When modeled in vitro, this state improved the viability of HD-patient-derived spiny projection neurons. Our findings uncover key roles of astrocytic states in protecting against neurodegeneration in HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahad Paryani
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ji-Sun Kwon
- Department of Developmental Biology Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Christopher W Ng
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Biological Engineering, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kelly Jakubiak
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Nacoya Madden
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kenneth Ofori
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alice Tang
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Hong Lu
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shengnan Xia
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Juncheng Li
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Aayushi Mahajan
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shawn M Davidson
- Northwestern Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | | | | | - Jean Paul Vonsattel
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Richard Hickman
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - David E Housman
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Biological Engineering, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - James E Goldman
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, New York, NY, USA
| | - Andrew S Yoo
- Department of Developmental Biology Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Vilas Menon
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Osama Al-Dalahmah
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, New York, NY, USA.
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Sabnis SS, Narasimhan KKS, Chettiar PB, Gakare SG, Shelkar GP, Asati DG, Thakur SS, Dravid SM. Intravenous recombinant cerebellin 1 treatment restores signalling by spinal glutamate delta 1 receptors and mitigates chronic pain. Br J Pharmacol 2024; 181:1421-1437. [PMID: 38044332 PMCID: PMC11288346 DOI: 10.1111/bph.16296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Chronic pain remains a major clinical problem that needs effective therapeutic agents. Glutamate delta 1 (GluD1) receptors and the protein cerebellin 1 (Cbln1) are down-regulated in the central amygdala (CeA) in models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. One treatment with Cbln1, intracerebroventricularly (ICV) or in CeA, normalized GluD1 and reduced AMPA receptor expression, resulting in lasting (7-10 days) pain relief. Unlike many CNS-targeting biological agents, the structure of Cbln1 suggests potential blood-brain barrier penetration. Here, we have tested whether systemic administration of Cbln1 provides analgesic effects via action in the CNS. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Analgesic effects of intravenous recombinant Cbln1 was assessed in complete Freund's adjuvant inflammatory pain model in mice. GluD1 knockout and a mutant form of Cbln1 were used. KEY RESULTS A single intravenous injection of Cbln1 mitigated nocifensive and averse behaviour in both inflammatory and neuropathic pain models. This effect of Cbln1 was dependent on GluD1 receptors and required binding to the amino terminal domain of GluD1. Time course of analgesic effect was similar to previously reported ICV and intra-CeA injection. GluD1 in both spinal cord and CeA was down -regulated in the inflammatory pain model, whereas GluD1 expression in spinal cord but not in CeA, was partly normalized by intravenous Cbln1. Importantly, recombinant Cbln1 was detected in the synaptoneurosomes in spinal cord but not in the CeA. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Our results describe a novel mechanism by which systemic Cbln1 induces analgesia potentially by central actions involving normalization of signalling by spinal cord GluD1 receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddhesh S. Sabnis
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, Nebraska 68178, USA
| | - Kishore Kumar S. Narasimhan
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, Nebraska 68178, USA
| | - Poojashree B. Chettiar
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, Nebraska 68178, USA
| | - Sukanya G. Gakare
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, Nebraska 68178, USA
| | - Gajanan P. Shelkar
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, Nebraska 68178, USA
| | - Devansh G. Asati
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, Nebraska 68178, USA
| | - Shriti S. Thakur
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, Nebraska 68178, USA
| | - Shashank M. Dravid
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, Nebraska 68178, USA
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Thompson LM, Orr HT. HD and SCA1: Tales from two 30-year journeys since gene discovery. Neuron 2023; 111:3517-3530. [PMID: 37863037 PMCID: PMC10842341 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023]
Abstract
One of the more transformative findings in human genetics was the discovery that the expansion of unstable nucleotide repeats underlies a group of inherited neurological diseases. A subset of these unstable repeat neurodegenerative diseases is due to the expansion of a CAG trinucleotide repeat encoding a stretch of glutamines, i.e., the polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat neurodegenerative diseases. Among the CAG/polyQ repeat diseases are Huntington's disease (HD) and spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1), in which the expansions are within widely expressed proteins. Although both HD and SCA1 are autosomal dominantly inherited, and both typically cause mid- to late-life-onset movement disorders with cognitive decline, they each are characterized by distinct clinical characteristics and predominant sites of neuropathology. Importantly, the respective affected proteins, Huntingtin (HTT, HD) and Ataxin 1 (ATXN1, SCA1), have unique functions and biological properties. Here, we review HD and SCA1 with a focus on how their disease-specific and shared features may provide informative insights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie M Thompson
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Department of Biological Chemistry, Institute of Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Center, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Harry T Orr
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis and Saint Paul, MN 55455, USA.
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Paryani F, Kwon JS, Ng CW, Madden N, Ofori K, Tang A, Lu H, Li J, Mahajan A, Davidson SM, Basile A, McHugh C, Vonsattel JP, Hickman R, Zody M, Houseman DE, Goldman JE, Yoo AS, Menon V, Al-Dalahmah O. Multi-OMIC analysis of Huntington disease reveals a neuroprotective astrocyte state. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.08.556867. [PMID: 37745577 PMCID: PMC10515780 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.08.556867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Huntington disease (HD) is an incurable neurodegenerative disease characterized by neuronal loss and astrogliosis. One hallmark of HD is the selective neuronal vulnerability of striatal medium spiny neurons. To date, the underlying mechanisms of this selective vulnerability have not been fully defined. Here, we employed a multi-omic approach including single nucleus RNAseq (snRNAseq), bulk RNAseq, lipidomics, HTT gene CAG repeat length measurements, and multiplexed immunofluorescence on post-mortem brain tissue from multiple brain regions of HD and control donors. We defined a signature of genes that is driven by CAG repeat length and found it enriched in astrocytic and microglial genes. Moreover, weighted gene correlation network analysis showed loss of connectivity of astrocytic and microglial modules in HD and identified modules that correlated with CAG-repeat length which further implicated inflammatory pathways and metabolism. We performed lipidomic analysis of HD and control brains and identified several lipid species that correlate with HD grade, including ceramides and very long chain fatty acids. Integration of lipidomics and bulk transcriptomics identified a consensus gene signature that correlates with HD grade and HD lipidomic abnormalities and implicated the unfolded protein response pathway. Because astrocytes are critical for brain lipid metabolism and play important roles in regulating inflammation, we analyzed our snRNAseq dataset with an emphasis on astrocyte pathology. We found two main astrocyte types that spanned multiple brain regions; these types correspond to protoplasmic astrocytes, and fibrous-like - CD44-positive, astrocytes. HD pathology was differentially associated with these cell types in a region-specific manner. One protoplasmic astrocyte cluster showed high expression of metallothionein genes, the depletion of this cluster positively correlated with the depletion of vulnerable medium spiny neurons in the caudate nucleus. We confirmed that metallothioneins were increased in cingulate HD astrocytes but were unchanged or even decreased in caudate astrocytes. We combined existing genome-wide association studies (GWAS) with a GWA study conducted on HD patients from the original Venezuelan cohort and identified a single-nucleotide polymorphism in the metallothionein gene locus associated with delayed age of onset. Functional studies found that metallothionein overexpressing astrocytes are better able to buffer glutamate and were neuroprotective of patient-derived directly reprogrammed HD MSNs as well as against rotenone-induced neuronal death in vitro. Finally, we found that metallothionein-overexpressing astrocytes increased the phagocytic activity of microglia in vitro and increased the expression of genes involved in fatty acid binding. Together, we identified an astrocytic phenotype that is regionally-enriched in less vulnerable brain regions that can be leveraged to protect neurons in HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahad Paryani
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
| | - Ji-Sun Kwon
- Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis
| | - Chris W Ng
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Biological Engineering
| | - Nacoya Madden
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
| | - Kenneth Ofori
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
| | - Alice Tang
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
| | - Hong Lu
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
| | - Juncheng Li
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
| | - Aayushi Mahajan
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
| | - Shawn M. Davidson
- Princeton University, Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics
| | | | | | - Jean Paul Vonsattel
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
| | - Richard Hickman
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
| | | | - David E. Houseman
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Biological Engineering
| | - James E. Goldman
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
| | - Andrew S. Yoo
- Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis
| | - Vilas Menon
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
| | - Osama Al-Dalahmah
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
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Hernandez SJ, Lim RG, Onur T, Dane MA, Smith R, Wang K, Jean GEH, Reyes-Ortiz A, Devlin K, Miramontes R, Wu J, Casale M, Kilburn D, Heiser LM, Korkola JE, Van Vactor D, Botas J, Thompson-Peer KL, Thompson LM. An altered extracellular matrix-integrin interface contributes to Huntington's disease-associated CNS dysfunction in glial and vascular cells. Hum Mol Genet 2023; 32:1483-1496. [PMID: 36547263 PMCID: PMC10117161 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddac303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes and brain endothelial cells are components of the neurovascular unit that comprises the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and their dysfunction contributes to pathogenesis in Huntington's disease (HD). Defining the contribution of these cells to disease can inform cell-type-specific effects and uncover new disease-modifying therapeutic targets. These cells express integrin (ITG) adhesion receptors that anchor the cells to the extracellular matrix (ECM) to maintain the integrity of the BBB. We used HD patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) modeling to study the ECM-ITG interface in astrocytes and brain microvascular endothelial cells and found ECM-ITG dysregulation in human iPSC-derived cells that may contribute to the dysfunction of the BBB in HD. This disruption has functional consequences since reducing ITG expression in glia in an HD Drosophila model suppressed disease-associated CNS dysfunction. Since ITGs can be targeted therapeutically and manipulating ITG signaling prevents neurodegeneration in other diseases, defining the role of ITGs in HD may provide a novel strategy of intervention to slow CNS pathophysiology to treat HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Hernandez
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Ryan G Lim
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Tarik Onur
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
- Genetics & Genomics Graduate Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mark A Dane
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, OHSU, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Rebecca Smith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, OHSU, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Keona Wang
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Grace En-Hway Jean
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Andrea Reyes-Ortiz
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Kaylyn Devlin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, OHSU, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Ricardo Miramontes
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Jie Wu
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Malcolm Casale
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - David Kilburn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, OHSU, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Laura M Heiser
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, OHSU, Portland, OR 97239, USA
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - James E Korkola
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, OHSU, Portland, OR 97239, USA
- OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - David Van Vactor
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Juan Botas
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
- Genetics & Genomics Graduate Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Quantitative & Computational Biosciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Katherine L Thompson-Peer
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Reeve-Irvine Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Leslie M Thompson
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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