Paternal Age Alters Social Development in Offspring

The effect of parental age on child development at 36 months: Insights from the Japan environment and children's study

BACKGROUND

The impact of parent-childbearing age on child development at 36 months of age is controversial.

AIMS

We used data from a large cohort study with multiple imputation and mediation analyses of variables.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

A total of 72,606 parent-child pairs from the Japan Environment and Children's Study were included in the study. Parents' ages were categorized into five groups. We used five domains of the Japanese translation of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire, Third Edition (J-ASQ-3). Scores below the cutoff value at 36 months were defined as developmental delays in each domain. We used three logistic analysis models. In Model 3, we analyzed maternal and paternal age using other variables and covariates.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

The outcome was a developmental delay in the five domains of J-ASQ-3. In Model 3, ORs for the developmental delay scores regarding parental age were significantly associated with all five domains of J-ASQ-3. The mediation analysis showed a significant mediation interaction effect for mothers but localized for fathers.

CONCLUSION

Advanced paternal and maternal ages were associated with developmental delay in children. Awareness of the risks of childbearing at an advanced age is crucial.

WHAT'S THE PAPER ADDS

This manuscript used data from a large cohort study with multiple imputation and mediation analyses. With these analyses, we identified the pure effect of advanced parental age on their children's development at 36 months.

Building a family at advanced parental age: a systematic review on the risks and opportunities for parents and their offspring

STUDY QUESTION

What is the existing empirical literature on the psychosocial health and wellbeing of the parents and offspring born at an advanced parental age (APA), defined as 40 years onwards?

SUMMARY ANSWER

Although the studies show discrepancies in defining who is an APA parent and an imbalance in the empirical evidence for offspring, mothers, and fathers, there is a drive towards finding psychotic disorders and (neuro-)developmental disorders among the offspring; overall, the observed advantages and disadvantages are difficult to compare.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

In many societies, children are born to parents at advanced ages and there is rising attention in the literature towards the consequences of this trend.

STUDY DESIGN SIZE DURATION

The systematic search was conducted in six electronic databases (PubMed including Medline, Embase, Scopus, PsycInfo, CINAHL, and SocINDEX) and was limited to papers published between 2000 and 2021 and to English-language articles. Search terms used across all six electronic databases were: ('advanced parental age' OR 'advanced maternal age' OR 'advanced paternal age' OR 'advanced reproductive age' OR 'late parent*' OR 'late motherhood' OR 'late fatherhood') AND ('IVF' OR 'in vitro fertilization' OR 'in-vitro-fertilization' OR 'fertilization in vitro' OR 'ICSI' OR 'intracytoplasmic sperm injection' OR 'reproductive techn*' OR 'assisted reproductive technolog*' OR 'assisted reproduction' OR 'assisted conception' OR 'reproduction' OR 'conception' OR 'birth*' OR 'pregnan*') AND ('wellbeing' OR 'well-being' OR 'psycho-social' OR 'social' OR 'ethical' OR 'right to reproduce' OR 'justice' OR 'family functioning' OR 'parental competenc*' OR 'ageism' OR 'reproductive autonomy' OR 'outcome' OR 'risk*' OR 'benefit*').

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS SETTING METHODS

The included papers were empirical studies in English published between 2000 and 2021, where the study either examined the wellbeing and psychosocial health of parents and/or their children, or focused on parental competences of APA parents or on the functioning of families with APA parents. A quality assessment of the identified studies was performed with the QATSDD tool. Additionally, 20% of studies were double-checked at the data extraction and quality assessment stage to avoid bias. The variables sought were: the geographical location, the year of publication, the methodological approach, the definitions of APA used, what study group was at the centre of the research, what research topic was studied, and what advantages and disadvantages of APA were found.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

A total number of 5403 articles were identified, leading to 2543 articles being included for title and abstract screening after removal of duplicates. This resulted in 98 articles included for a full-text reading by four researchers. Ultimately, 69 studies were included in the final sample. The key results concerned four aspects relevant to the research goals. (i) The studies showed discrepancies in defining who is an APA parent. (ii) There was an imbalance in the empirical evidence produced for different participant groups (mothers, fathers, and offspring), with offspring being the most studied study subjects. (iii) The research topics studied underlined the increased risks of neuro-developmental and psychotic disorders among offspring. (iv) The observed advantages and disadvantages were varied and could not be compared, especially for the offspring of APA parents.

LIMITATIONS REASONS FOR CAUTION

Only English-language studies, published between 2000 and 2021, found in the above-mentioned databases were considered for this review.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

More research is necessary to understand the risks and benefits of building a family at an APA for the offspring when they reach adulthood. Furthermore, studies that explore the perspective of older fathers and older parents from non-Western societies would be highly informative.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTERESTS

The writing of this manuscript was permitted by financial support provided by the Swiss National Science Foundation (Weave/Lead Agency funding program, grant number 10001AL_197415/1, project title 'Family Building at Advanced Parental Age: An Interdisciplinary Approach'). The funder had no role in the drafting of this manuscript and the views expressed therein are those of the authors. The authors have no conflicts of interest.

REGISTRATION NUMBER

This systematic review is registered in Prospero: CRD42022304564.

Children with a history of both maternal immune activation and prematurity are not at increased risk of ADHD symptoms

Maternal autoimmune diseases (AID) are risk factors for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Animal studies suggest that maternal immune activation (MIA) is a disease primer for ADHD, with second environmental factor precipitating the onset of the disease. Prematurity is also a major risk factor for ADHD. In this study, we sought to explore the interaction between parental AID and prematurity on ADHD risk in a community sample. Children of AID parents born prematurely appeared at increased odds of ADHD but these two risk factors do not appear to be additive (OR 1.39 [95 CI 0.75; 2.46]). Longitudinal studies with larger numbers of participants are needed.

Family, personal, parental correlates and behavior disturbances in school-aged boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the relationship among family, personal, parental correlates, and behavioral disturbances in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

METHODS

We performed a hospital-based cross-sectional study. School-aged boys who first visited the hospital between 2000 and 2011 with ADHD were identified. Through medical records review, demographic information, family characteristics, personal characteristics, parental characteristics, and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) collected during the first outpatient visit were retrieved. A T-score higher than 63 in the internalizing or externalizing subscale of the CBCL indicated severe behavioral disturbances in each domain. Multivariable logistic regression was used to evaluate the relationship between the correlates and behavioral disturbances. Eligible patients were further classified into groups without behavioral disturbance, with either only severe internalizing or only severe externalizing behaviors, or with both behaviors. Multivariable ordinal logistic regression was used to investigate the association between the correlates and the number of types of behavioral disturbances.

RESULTS

A total of 1855 boys with ADHD were included. In the multivariable logistic regression, family factors, including being first-born, living in a family not with both parents, and family history of mental disorder, were associated with severe internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Personal factors, including prenatal complications, perinatal complications, and medical and psychiatric comorbidities, were associated with severe internalizing behaviors, but only prenatal complications and medical comorbidities were associated with severe externalizing behaviors. Parental factors were only associated with severe externalizing behaviors. A higher paternal education level had a protective effect, but younger motherhood increased the risk. In ordinal logistic regression, these factors were also associated with more types of behavioral disturbances.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple factors are related to behavioral disturbances in ADHD. Our study reported the association among family, personal, parental factors, severe internalizing behavior, severe externalizing behavior, and number of behavioral disturbances in boys with ADHD. However, the impacts differed as the behavior phenotypes varied. Further research is needed to better understand the heterogeneity of ADHD behavior.

Parental age at childbirth and risk for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in offspring

This study investigated the association between parental age at birth and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms in their children. A total of 30,552 children aged 6-12 years participated in the study. ADHD symptoms were rated using the Korean version of the ADHD Rating Scale (K-ARS) by parents. K-ARS scores and odds ratio (OR) for children with high-risk ADHD presented a U-shape curve depending on the age of both parents at birth. The total K-ARS scores and OR for high-risk ADHD were highest in children of fathers and mothers belonging to the youngest age group (aged ≤20) (K-ARS = 12.33, OR = 2.89 vs K-ARS = 10.98, OR = 2.63) and second highest in children whose father's or mother's age at birth was the oldest (K-ARS = 9.63, OR = 1.65 vs K-ARS = 9.95, OR = 1.95). Our study identified that both spectrums of age-young and old of either parent-were associated with ADHD in children. These are new findings considering that old age of parents as the correlates of offspring ADHD is the inconsistent finding with previous studies and warrant future studies in other cultures that include more detailed information on ADHD symptoms of children and their parents are needed to confirm the present findings.

Degree of influence in class modifies the association between social network diversity and well-being: Results from a large population-based study in Japan

BACKGROUND

Social network diversity can be associated with physical and mental health among adolescents, which might be modified by their perceived degree of influence in class. We aimed to examine the association between social network diversity and physical and mental health, and to elucidate its effect modification by perceived degree of influence in class.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the Kochi Child Health Impact of Living Difficulty (K-CHILD) study in 2016, which targeted 5th, 8th and 11th grade children living in Kochi Prefecture in Japan (N = 9998). Social network diversity accounted for the number of social roles in which adolescents had regular contact. Degree of influence in class, depression (using Depression Self-Rating Scale for children (DSRS)) and self-rated health were assessed by children, and behavior problem and prosocial behavior (using Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)) was assessed by caregivers.

RESULTS

Significant association of social network diversity with depression (Coefficient (B) = -0.59, 95% confidence interval (CI) = -0.68 to -0.50), self-rated health (B = 0.09, 95% CI = 0.07 to 0.11), behavior problem (B = -0.71, 95% CI = -0.82 to -0.61) and prosocial behavior (B = 0.06, 95% CI = 0.02 to 0.11) were found. The association with depression and self-rated health was stronger among children with perceived low degree of influence (both p for interaction < 0.001). A similar trend was observed for behavior problem (p for interaction = 0.053), but effect modification was not found for the association between social network diversity and prosocial behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

Social network diversity was beneficial for adolescent physical and mental health, especially for children with perceived lower degree of influence in class.

The Association Between Parental Age and Autism-Related Outcomes in Children at High Familial Risk for Autism

Advanced parental age is a well-replicated risk factor for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a neurodevelopmental condition with a complex and not well-defined etiology. We sought to determine parental age associations with ASD-related outcomes in subjects at high familial risk for ASD. A total of 397 younger siblings of a child with ASD, drawn from existing prospective high familial risk cohorts, were included in these analyses. Overall, we did not observe significant associations of advanced parental age with clinical ASD diagnosis, Social Responsiveness Scale, or Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales scores. Instead, increased odds of ASD were found with paternal age < 30 years (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 2.83 and 95% confidence intervals [CI] = 1.14-7.02). Likewise, younger age (<30 years) for both parents was associated with decreases in Mullen Scales of Early Learning early learning composite (MSEL-ELC) scores (adjusted β = -9.62, 95% CI = -17.1 to -2.15). We also found significant increases in cognitive functioning based on MSEL-ELC scores with increasing paternal age (adjusted β associated with a 10-year increase in paternal age = 5.51, 95% CI = 0.70-10.3). Results suggest the potential for a different relationship between parental age and ASD-related outcomes in families with elevated ASD risk than has been observed in general population samples. Autism Res 2020, 13: 998-1010. © 2020 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: Previous work suggests that older parents have a greater likelihood of having a child with autism. We investigated this relationship in the younger siblings of families who already had a child with autism. In this setting, we found a higher likelihood of autism, as well as poorer cognitive scores, in the siblings with younger fathers, and higher cognitive scores in the siblings with older parents. These results suggest that parental age associations may differ based on children's familial risk for autism.

Paternal age in rhesus macaques is positively associated with germline mutation accumulation but not with measures of offspring sociability

Mutation is the ultimate source of all genetic novelty and the cause of heritable genetic disorders. Mutational burden has been linked to complex disease, including neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia and autism. The rate of mutation is a fundamental genomic parameter and direct estimates of this parameter have been enabled by accurate comparisons of whole-genome sequences between parents and offspring. Studies in humans have revealed that the paternal age at conception explains most of the variation in mutation rate: Each additional year of paternal age in humans leads to approximately 1.5 additional inherited mutations. Here, we present an estimate of the de novo mutation rate in the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) using whole-genome sequence data from 32 individuals in four large pedigrees. We estimated an average mutation rate of 0.58 × 10⁻⁸ per base pair per generation (at an average parental age of 7.5 yr), much lower than found in direct estimates from great apes. As in humans, older macaque fathers transmit more mutations to their offspring, increasing the per generation mutation rate by 4.27 × 10⁻¹⁰ per base pair per year. We found that the rate of mutation accumulation after puberty is similar between macaques and humans, but that a smaller number of mutations accumulate before puberty in macaques. We additionally investigated the role of paternal age on offspring sociability, a proxy for normal neurodevelopment, by studying 203 male macaques in large social groups.

Paternal age is affected by genetic abnormalities, perinatal complications and mental health of the offspring

Infertility and fecundity problems concern 10-18% of partners in their reproductive years compromising around one million females and males in Poland. Research and analysis of factors that affect male fertility are limited, especially, regarding the age of the father and determining the age at which quality of semen decreases. Age of the father has greater impact than maternal age, on cases of sporadic autosomal dominant congenital diseases such as Apert, Crouzon, Pfeiffer, Noonan and Costello syndromes, multiple endocrine neoplasia (types 2A and 2B) and achondroplasia. However, there are only a few reports taking paternal advanced age into consideration for pre-mature birth, low Apgar scores or admission to a neonatal intensive care department. Paternal age increases the frequency of congenital diseases such as heart malformations as well as oral, palate and lip cleft. Moreover, mental disorders (autism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, low IQ level as well as ADHD) also occur more frequently in advanced father's age. Advanced paternal age is defined differently in every research. It depends on disorders in offspring we are talking about. Paternal age has an impact on child's health and development and it is as significant as maternal age, when it comes to reproductive matters.

Children With Early-Onset Disruptive Behavior: Parental Mental Disorders Predict Poor Psychosocial Functioning in Adolescence

OBJECTIVE

Parental mental disorders (MD) and child early-onset disruptive behavior (DB) are well-established risk factors for poor outcomes in adolescence. However, it is not clear whether parental MD increases risk of future maladjustment among children who already display DB.

METHOD

Parents of 9-year-old children reported on child DB, whereas a patient registry was used to determine parental MD. At follow-ups at ages 15 (n = 6,319) and 18 (n = 3,068) years, information about various problems were collected via registries, parent-, and self-reports.

RESULTS

In the total sample, child DB was related to all outcomes (mean odds ratio [OR] = 1.18; range = 1.07-1.51; p values < .01), paternal MD to criminality, aggression, truancy, poor school performance, and a cumulative risk index of poor functioning, and maternal MD to peer problems, rule breaking, and truancy (mean OR = 1.67; range = 1.19-2.71; p values < .05). In the subsample of children with DB, paternal MD predicted criminality, consequences of antisocial behavior, truancy, poor school performance, and cumulative risk, whereas maternal MD predicted peer problems (mean OR = 1.94; range = 1.30-2.40; p values < .05).

CONCLUSION

This study provides novel evidence that parental MD places 9-year-olds with DB at risk for negative outcomes in adolescence. In addition, paternal MD is a better predictor than maternal MD, regardless of child DB at age 9, suggesting that fathers should be given increased attention in future research. Treatment-as-usual of children with DB could be augmented with additional screening and, if necessary, treatment of mental health problems in their parents.

Parental Age and Offspring Childhood Mental Health: A Multi-Cohort, Population-Based Investigation

To examine the contributions of maternal and paternal age on offspring externalizing and internalizing problems, this study analyzed problem behaviors at age 10-12 years from four Dutch population-based cohorts (N = 32,892) by a multiple informant design. Bayesian evidence synthesis was used to combine results across cohorts with 50% of the data analyzed for discovery and 50% for confirmation. There was evidence of a robust negative linear relation between parental age and externalizing problems as reported by parents. In teacher-reports, this relation was largely explained by parental socio-economic status. Parental age had limited to no association with internalizing problems. Thus, in this large population-based study, either a beneficial or no effect of advanced parenthood on child problem behavior was observed.

Parental Age and Differential Estimates of Risk for Neuropsychiatric Disorders: Findings From the Danish Birth Cohort

OBJECTIVE

Parental age at birth has been shown to affect the rates of a range of neurodevelopmental disorders, but the understanding of the mechanisms through which it mediates different outcomes is still lacking. A population-based cohort was used to assess differential effects of parental age on estimates of risk across pediatric-onset neuropsychiatric disorders: autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and Tourette's disorder/chronic tic disorder (TD/CT).

METHOD

The study cohort included all singleton births in Denmark from 1980 through 2007 with full information on parental ages (N = 1,490,745) and was followed through December 31, 2013. Cases of ASD, ADHD, OCD, and TD/CT were identified in the Danish Psychiatric Central Register and the National Patient Register. Associations with parental age were modeled using a stratified Cox regression, allowing for changes in baseline diagnostic rates across time.

RESULTS

Younger parental age was significantly associated with increased estimates of risk for ADHD and TD/CT, whereas older parental age was associated with ASD and OCD. Except for OCD, no evidence for differential effects of parental ages on male versus female offspring was observed.

CONCLUSION

This study provides novel evidence for the association between age at parenthood and TD/CT and OCD and for the first time shows in a population-based sample that parental age confers differential risk rates for pediatric-onset psychiatric disorders. These results are consistent with a model of shared and unshared risk architecture for pediatric-onset neuropsychiatric conditions, highlighting unique contributions of maternal and paternal ages.

Predictors of emotional and behavioral problems among Indian adolescents: A clinic-based study

BACKGROUND

Emotional and behavioral problems place a heavy burden on the adolescents and their families. Many factors are known to influence adolescent mental health. The current study was designed to determine the predictors of emotional and behavioral problems among Indian adolescents.

METHODS

The parents of adolescents in the age group of 10 to 18 (N = 81) were recruited from the National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (Parent version), Strength and Difficulty Questionnaire (Parent version) and, the Parent Interview Schedule (PIS) were used to assess the parental practices, emotional and behavioral problems and abnormal psychosocial environment of the adolescents. The data were analyzed with stepwise multiple linear and Quantile regression to find out significant predictors of emotional and behavioral problems among adolescents.

RESULTS

Adolescent's age, parental involvement, and paternal age are the significant predictors of emotional problems. Parental mental disorder or deviance, gender, and inconsistent discipline are the significant predictors for conduct problems. Poor monitoring and supervision, paternal and maternal age are statistically significant predictors of prosocial skills among the adolescents. Inadequate or distorted intrafamilial communication and parental mental disorder are the significant predictors of total difficulties among the adolescents.

CONCLUSION

The study validates the role of abnormal psychosocial environments and negative parenting practices as risk factors for emotional and behavioral problems among the adolescents. A comprehensive analysis which covers all possible variables related to adolescent mental health is mandatory for the health professionals before planning the intervention.

Prenatal Risk for ASD: Fetal Cortisol Exposure Predicts Child Autism-Spectrum Disorder Symptoms

The etiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is multifactorial and complex and likely involves interactions among genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors. With respect to environmental influences, a growing literature implicates intrauterine experiences in the origin of this pervasive developmental disorder. In this prospective longitudinal design, we examine the hypothesis that fetal exposure to maternal cortisol may confer ASD risk. In addition, because ASD is four times more prevalent in males than females and because sexually dimorphic responses to intrauterine experiences are commonly observed, we examine whether or not any associations differ by fetal sex. Maternal plasma cortisol was measured at 15, 19, 25, 31, and 37 weeks' gestation in a sample of 84 pregnant women. ASD symptoms were assessed in their 5-year old children with the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ). Fetal exposure to lower levels of maternal cortisol was associated with higher levels of ASD symptoms among boys only. The observed hypocortisolemic profile exhibited by these mothers may indicate a risk factor that precedes the stress of caregiving for a child with ASD and may not be solely a consequence of the stress of caregiving as previously thought. Further, these findings confirm the value of examining prenatal hormone exposures as predictors of ASD risk and support the premise that altered prenatal steroid exposures may play a role in the etiology of ASD.

The Role of Paternal Age in the Prediction of Offspring Intelligence

Recent evidence suggests that paternal age at birth influences myriad developmental outcomes among children, but few studies have examined the possibility for father's age to influence children's intellectual development among a sample of high-risk families. The authors use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine the association between paternal age at birth among 480 male and 449 female children's verbal IQ scores, as assessed with a version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test at 9 years old. The nonlinear association between paternal age and children's verbal intelligence was also examined. Paternal age at birth appears to have a marginally significant nonlinear relationship with male children's verbal IQ scores, despite controlling for a number of possible confounders associated with both young and advanced paternal age.

Widespread covariation of early environmental exposures and trait-associated polygenic variation

Although gene-environment correlation is recognized and investigated by family studies and recently by SNP-heritability studies, the possibility that genetic effects on traits capture environmental risk factors or protective factors has been neglected by polygenic prediction models. We investigated covariation between trait-associated polygenic variation identified by genome-wide association studies (GWASs) and specific environmental exposures, controlling for overall genetic relatedness using a genomic relatedness matrix restricted maximum-likelihood model. In a UK-representative sample (n = 6,710), we find widespread covariation between offspring trait-associated polygenic variation and parental behavior and characteristics relevant to children's developmental outcomes-independently of population stratification. For instance, offspring genetic risk for schizophrenia was associated with paternal age (R² = 0.002; P = 1e-04), and offspring education-associated variation was associated with variance in breastfeeding (R² = 0.021; P = 7e-30), maternal smoking during pregnancy (R² = 0.008; P = 5e-13), parental smacking (R² = 0.01; P = 4e-15), household income (R² = 0.032; P = 1e-22), watching television (R² = 0.034; P = 5e-47), and maternal education (R² = 0.065; P = 3e-96). Education-associated polygenic variation also captured covariation between environmental exposures and children's inattention/hyperactivity, conduct problems, and educational achievement. The finding that genetic variation identified by trait GWASs partially captures environmental risk factors or protective factors has direct implications for risk prediction models and the interpretation of GWAS findings.

Advantageous developmental outcomes of advancing paternal age

Advanced paternal age (APA) at conception has been associated with negative outcomes in offspring, raising concerns about increasing age at fatherhood. Evidence from evolutionary and psychological research, however, suggests possible link between APA and a phenotypic advantage. We defined such advantage as educational success, which is positively associated with future socioeconomic status. We hypothesised that high IQ, strong focus on the subject of interest and little concern about 'fitting in' will be associated with such success. Although these traits are continuously distributed in the population, they cluster together in so-called 'geeks'. We used these measures to compute a 'geek index' (GI), and showed it to be strongly predictive of future academic attainment, beyond the independent contribution of the individual traits. GI was associated with paternal age in male offspring only, and mediated the positive effects of APA on education outcomes, in a similar sexually dimorphic manner. The association between paternal age and GI was partly mediated by genetic factors not correlated with age at fatherhood, suggesting contribution of de novo factors to the 'geeky' phenotype. Our study sheds new light on the multifaceted nature of the APA effects and explores the intricate links between APA, autism and talent.