MicroRNA-4443 regulates mast cell activation by T cell–derived microvesicles

Diminished Diversities and Clonally Expanded Sequences of T-Cell Receptors in Patients with Chronic Spontaneous Urticaria

Objective

Studies establish a link between autoimmune factors and chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU). T cells are crucial in immune-mediated diseases like CSU, and T-cell receptor (TCR) diversity could be pivotal in autoimmune responses. The clinical relevance of TCR variations in CSU is unknown, but understanding them may offer insights into CSU's pathogenesis and treatment.

Methods

This cross-sectional study included 132 chronic urticaria (CU) patients versus 100 age-matched healthy donors (HD), with subgroup analyses on CU type, angioedema, allergic comorbidities, and anti-IgE therapy efficacy. Peripheral TCRβ repertoires were analyzed by high-throughput sequencing.

Results

CSU patients showed reduced TCR diversity (lower D50) and increased large clone proportions than HD. Moreover, TCR diversity in CSU patients was significantly lower than in those with Chronic Inducible Urticaria (ClndU). There were also differences in variable (V) and joining (J) gene usage between CU and HD groups as well as CSU and ClndU groups. However, in subgroup analyses regarding angioedema, allergic comorbidities, and the efficacy of anti-IgE treatment, no significant differences were found in TCR diversity or large TCRβ clones. Notably, patients with treatment relapse or poor response to anti-IgE therapy had a higher proportion of positively charged CDR3. Additionally, age affected TCR diversity, but TIgE value, EOS counts, CU duration, and UAS7 score did not associate significantly with D50.

Conclusion

CSU patients exhibit reduced TCR diversity and increased large clone proportions, indicating abnormal T cell activation. The TCR diversity differences and distinct V and J gene usage between CSU and ClndU may indicate different mechanisms in T lymphocyte-associated immune responses for these two subtypes of CU. The higher positive charge in CDR3 of relapsed or poorly responsive patients to anti-IGE treatment may indicate more antigen charge involvement. These findings provide new insights into the pathogenesis of CSU and potential future treatments.

Extracellular vesicles as a hydrolytic platform of secreted phospholipase A2

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent small vesicles secreted from cells, including exosomes (40-150 nm in diameter), which are released via the multivesicular endosomal pathway, and microvesicles and ectosomes (100-1000 nm), which are produced by plasma membrane budding. Broadly, EVs also include vesicles generated from dying cells, such as apoptotic bodies (5-10 μm), as well as exomeres (< 50 nm), which are very small, non-membranous nanoparticles. EVs play important roles in cell-to-cell signaling in various aspects of cancer, immunity, metabolism, and so on by transferring proteins, microRNAs (miRNAs), and metabolites as cargos from donor cells to recipient cells. Although lipids are one of the major components of EVs, they have long been recognized as merely the "wall" that partitions the lumen of the vesicle from the outside. However, it has recently become obvious that lipid composition of EVs influences their properties and functions, that EVs act as a carrier of a variety of lipid mediators, and that lipid mediators are produced in EV membranes by the hydrolytic action of secreted phospholipase A2s (sPLA2s). In this article, we will make an overview of the roles of lipids in EVs, with a particular focus on sPLA2-driven mobilization of lipid mediators from EVs and its biological significance.

CD4+CCR5+ T cells and CCL3+ mast cells are increased in the skin of patients with chronic spontaneous urticaria

Background

The proximity of activated T cells and mast cells in the lesional skin of patients with chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU) is held to contribute to the development of wheals and angioedema. In a previous study, we demonstrated that increased IL-17 expression in T cells and mast cells in skin lesions of patients with CSU is associated with T/mast cell proximity, but the mechanisms that drive T cell/mast cell co-localization remain unknown.

Objectives

To assess if chemokines expressed in lesional CSU skin contribute to T cell/mast cell proximity.

Patients and methods

Biopsies from lesional CSU skin were compared to biopsies from healthy skin for expression of CCR5 and its ligand CCL3 by CD4+ T cells and mast cells, respectively.

Results

Numbers of CCR5-positive CD4+ T cells in lesional CSU skin were significantly increased as compared to healthy normal skin (p < 0.0001). The number of mast cells expressing CCL3 (ligand for CCR5) in CSU skin was also increased (p < 0.0002) and significant association with T-cell close proximity (p < 0.0001) is noticed.

Conclusions

The close proximity of T cells and mast cells in the skin of severe CSU may be driven, at least in part by increased CCR5 and CCL3 expression. Therapies that target CCL3 interaction with CCR5 should be assessed for their effects in CSU.

miR-4443 Contained Extracellular Vesicles: A Factor for Endometriosis Progression by PI3K/AKT/ACSS2 Cascade in-vitro

Introduction

Endometriosis (EM) is an estrogen-dependent benign gynecologic disease affecting approximately 10% of reproductive-age women with a high recurrence rate, but lacks reliable biomarkers. No previous studies have investigated the possible use of extracellular vesicle (EV)-associated micro RNAs (miRNAs) from menstrual blood (MB) as candidate diagnostic or prognostic markers of EM.

Methods

Specimens were obtained from endometriosis and non-endometriosis patients at the International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital in Shanghai. Microarray was used to screen differentially expressed miRNAs among peritoneal fluid (PF), fallopian tube fluid (FF), and MB. Dual-luciferase reporter gene assay was carried out to verify the relationship between miR-4443 and ACSS2. Cell proliferation and Transwell invasion assays were performed in vitro after intervention on miR-4443 and ACSS2 in hEM15A human endometrial stromal cells and primary human endometrial stromal cells (hESCs). Spearman correlation analysis, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, and survival analysis were applied to clinical data, including severity of symptoms and relapse of EM among EM patients.

Results

EV-associated miR-4443 was abundant in MB of endometriosis patients. ACSS2 knockdown and miR-4443 overexpression promoted cell proliferation and migration via the PI3K/AKT pathway. miR-4443 levels in MB-EVs were positively correlated with the degree of dyspareunia (r=0.64; P<0.0001) and dysmenorrhea (r=0.42; P<0.01) in the endometriosis group. ROC curve analyses showed an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.741 (95% CI 0.624-0.858; P<0.05) for miR-4443 and an AUC of 0.929 (95% CI 0.880-0.978; P<0.05) for the combination of miR-4443 and dysmenorrhea.

Conclusion

MB-derived EV-associated miR-4443 might participate in endometriosis development, thus providing a new candidate biomarker for the noninvasive prediction of endometriosis recurrence.

Exosomes in asthma: Underappreciated contributors to the pathogenesis and novel therapeutic tools

OBJECTIVE

Asthma, a chronic inflammatory disease with diverse pathomechanisms, presents challenges in developing personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the role of exosomes, small extracellular vesicles, in asthma pathophysiology and explores their potential as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic tools.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted to identify recent studies investigating the involvement of exosomes in asthma. The retrieved articles were analyzed to extract relevant information on the role of exosomes in maintaining lung microenvironment homeostasis, regulating inflammatory responses, and their diagnostic and therapeutic potential for asthma.

RESULTS

Exosomes secreted by various cell types, have emerged as crucial mediators of intercellular communication in healthy and diseased conditions. Evidence suggest that exosomes play a significant role in maintaining lung microenvironment homeostasis and contribute to asthma pathogenesis by regulating inflammatory responses. Differential exosomal content between healthy individuals and asthmatics holds promise for the development of novel asthma biomarkers. Furthermore, exosomes secreted by immune and nonimmune cells, as well as those detected in biofluids, demonstrate potential in promoting or regulating immune responses, making them attractive candidates for designing new treatment strategies for inflammatory conditions such as asthma.

CONCLUSION

Exosomes, with their ability to modulate immune responses and deliver therapeutic cargo, offer potential as targeted therapeutic tools in asthma management. Further research and clinical trials are required to fully understand the mechanisms underlying exosome-mediated effects and translate these findings into effective diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for asthma patients.

Epigenetic regulation of pulmonary inflammation

Pulmonary disease such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary hypertension are the leading cause of deaths. More importantly, lung diseases are on the rise and environmental factors induced epigenetic modifications are major players on this increased prevalence. It has been reported that dysregulation of genes involved in epigenetic regulation such as the histone deacetylase (HDACs) and histone acetyltransferase (HATs) play important role in lung health and pulmonary disease pathogenesis. Inflammation is an essential component of respiratory diseases. Injury and inflammation trigger release of extracellular vesicles that can act as epigenetic modifiers through transfer of epigenetic regulators such as microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), proteins and lipids, from one cell to another. The immune dysregulations caused by the cargo contents are important contributors of respiratory disease pathogenesis. N6 methylation of RNA is also emerging to be a critical mechanism of epigenetic alteration and upregulation of immune responses to environmental stressors. Epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation are stable and often long term and cause onset of chronic lung conditions. These epigenetic pathways are also being utilized for therapeutic intervention in several lung conditions.

Macrophage microvesicle-derived circ_YTHDF2 in methamphetamine-induced chronic lung injury

Long-term abuse of methamphetamine (MA) can cause lung toxicity. Intercellular communication between macrophages and alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) is critical for maintaining lung homeostasis. Microvesicles (MVs) are an important medium of intercellular communication. However, the mechanism of macrophage MVs (MMVs) in MA-induced chronic lung injury remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate if MA can augment the activity of MMVs and if circ_YTHDF2 is a key factor in MMV-mediated macrophage-AEC communication, and to explore the mechanism of MMV-derived circ_YTHDF2 in MA-induced chronic lung injury. MA elevated peak velocity of the pulmonary artery and pulmonary artery accelerate time, reduced the number of alveolar sacs, thickened the alveolar septum, and accelerated the release of MMVs and the uptake of MMVs by AECs. Circ_YTHDF2 was downregulated in lung and MMVs induced by MA. The immune factors in MMVs were increased by si-circ_YTHDF. Circ_YTHDF2 knockdown in MMVs induced inflammation and remodelling in the internalised AECs by MMVs, which was reversed by circ_YTHDF2 overexpression in MMVs. Circ_YTHDF2 bound specifically to and sponged miRNA-145-5p. Runt-related transcription factor 3 (RUNX3) was identified as potential target of miR-145-5p. RUNX3 targeted zinc finger E-box-binding homeobox 1 (ZEB1)-related inflammation and EMT of AECs. In vivo, circ_YTHDF2 overexpression-MMVs attenuated MA-induced lung inflammation and remodelling by the circ_YTHDF2-miRNA-145-5p-RUNX3 axis. Therefore, MA abuse can induce pulmonary dysfunction and alveolus injury. The immunoactivity of MMVs is regulated by circ_YTHDF2. Circ_YTHDF2 in MMVs is the key to communication between macrophages and AECs. Circ_YTHDF2 sponges miR-145-5p targeting RUNX3 to participate in ZEB1-related inflammation and remodelling of AECs. MMV-derived circ_YTHDF2 would be an important therapeutic target for MA-induced chronic lung injury. KEY POINTS: Methamphetamine (MA) abuse induces pulmonary dysfunction and alveoli injury. The immunoactivity of macrophage microvesicles (MMVs) is regulated by circ_YTHDF2. Circ_YTHDF2 in MMVs is the key to MMV-mediated intercellular communication between macrophages and alveolar epithelial cells. Circ_YTHDF2 sponges miR-145-5p targeting runt-related transcription factor 3 (RUNX3) to participate in zinc finger E-box-binding homeobox 1 (ZEB1)-related inflammation and remodelling. MMV-derived circ_YTHDF2 would be an important therapeutic target for MA-induced chronic lung injury.

Comparison of immunotherapy mediated by apoptotic bodies, microvesicles and exosomes: apoptotic bodies' unique anti-inflammatory potential

Immunotherapy, including immunostimulation and immunosuppression, has seen significant development in the last 10 years. Immunostimulation has been verified as effective in anti-cancer treatment, while immunosuppression is used in the treatment of autoimmune disease and inflammation. Currently, with the update of newly-invented simplified isolation methods and the findings of potent triggered immune responses, extracellular vesicle-based immunotherapy is very eye-catching. However, the research on three main types of extracellular vesicles, exosomes, microvesicles and apoptotic bodies, needs to be more balanced. These three subtypes share a certain level of similarity, and at the same time, they have their own properties caused by the different methods of biogensis. Herein, we summarized respectively the status of immunotherapy based on each kind of vesicle and discuss the possible involved mechanisms. In conclusion, we highlighted that the effect of the apoptotic body is clear and strong. Apoptotic bodies have an excellent potential in immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory therapies .

Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) as Crucial Mediators of Cell-Cell Interaction in Asthma

Asthma is the most common chronic respiratory disorder worldwide and accounts for a huge health and economic burden. Its incidence is rapidly increasing but, in parallel, novel personalized approaches have emerged. Indeed, the improved knowledge of cells and molecules mediating asthma pathogenesis has led to the development of targeted therapies that significantly increased our ability to treat asthma patients, especially in severe stages of disease. In such complex scenarios, extracellular vesicles (EVs i.e., anucleated particles transporting nucleic acids, cytokines, and lipids) have gained the spotlight, being considered key sensors and mediators of the mechanisms controlling cell-to-cell interplay. We will herein first revise the existing evidence, mainly by mechanistic studies in vitro and in animal models, that EV content and release is strongly influenced by the specific triggers of asthma. Current studies indicate that EVs are released by potentially all cell subtypes in the asthmatic airways, particularly by bronchial epithelial cells (with different cargoes in the apical and basolateral side) and inflammatory cells. Such studies largely suggest a pro-inflammatory and pro-remodelling role of EVs, whereas a minority of reports indicate protective effects, particularly by mesenchymal cells. The co-existence of several confounding factors-including technical pitfalls and host and environmental confounders-is still a major challenge in human studies. Technical standardization in isolating EVs from different body fluids and careful selection of patients will provide the basis for obtaining reliable results and extend their application as effective biomarkers in asthma.

miR-4443 promotes radiation resistance of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma via targeting PTPRJ

BACKGROUND

Radiotherapy is one of the main treatments for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), but its efficacy is limited by radioresistance. MicroRNAs play a crucial role in posttranscriptional regulation, which is linked to the cancer response to radiation.

METHODS

We successfully established a radioresistant cell line model by using fractionated irradiation. qRT-PCR was adopted to detect the expression of miR-4443 in human normal esophageal cell lines, tumor cells, and radioresistant cells. Next, CCK-8, colony formation, apoptosis, and cell cycle assays were used to assess the biological effect of miR-4443. Weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) was performed to identify potential radiosensitivity-related genes. Additionally, we predicted the probable targets of the miRNA using bioinformatic methods and confirmed them using Western blot.

RESULTS

miR-4443 was significantly upregulated in radioresistant ESCC cells. Enhancement of miR-4443 further decreased the radiosensitivity of ESCC cells, while inhibition of miR-4443 increased the radiosensitivity of ESCC cells. Notably, miR-4443 modulated radiosensitivity by influencing DNA damage repair, apoptosis, and G2 cycle arrest. By using WGCNA and experimental validation, we identified PTPRJ as a key target for miRNA-4443 to regulate radiosensitivity. The effects of miR-4443 overexpression or inhibition could be reversed by increasing or decreasing PTPRJ expression.

CONCLUSION

In this study, miR-4443 is found to promote radiotherapy resistance in ESCC cells by regulating PTPRJ expression, which provides a new perspective and clue to alleviate radioresistance.

Human microRNA-4433 (hsa-miR-4443) Targets 18 Genes to be a Risk Factor of Neurodegenerative Diseases

BACKGROUND

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease patients (AD), Huntington's disease (HD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), are common causes of morbidity, mortality, and cognitive impairment in older adults.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to understand the transcriptome characteristics of the cortex of neurodegenerative diseases and to provide an insight into the target genes of differently expressed microRNAs in the occurrence and development of neurodegenerative diseases.

METHODS

The Limma package of R software was used to analyze GSE33000, GSE157239, GSE64977 and GSE72962 datasets to identify the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and microRNAs in the cortex of neurodegenerative diseases. Bioinformatics methods, such as GO enrichment analysis, KEGG enrichment analysis and gene interaction network analysis, were used to explore the biological functions of DEGs. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was used to cluster DEGs into modules. RNA22, miRDB, miRNet 2.0 and TargetScan7 databases were performed to predict the target genes of microRNAs.

RESULTS

Among 310 Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, 157 Huntington's disease (HD) patients and 157 non-demented control (Con) individuals, 214 co-DEGs were identified. Those co-DEGs were filtered into 2 different interaction network complexes, representing immune-related genes and synapserelated genes. The WGCNA results identified five modules: yellow, blue, green, turquoise, and brown. Most of the co-DEGs were clustered into the turquoise module and blue module, which respectively regulated synapse-related function and immune-related function. In addition, human microRNA-4433 (hsa-miR-4443), which targets 18 co-DEGs, was the only 1 co-up-regulated microRNA identified in the cortex of neurodegenerative diseases.

CONCLUSION

214 DEGs and 5 modules regulate the immune-related and synapse-related function of the cortex in neurodegenerative diseases. Hsa-miR-4443 targets 18 co-DEGs and may be a potential molecular mechanism in neurodegenerative diseases' occurrence and development.

Aberrant expression of microRNA-4443 (miR-4443) in human diseases

miRNA is a small endogenous RNA and an important regulator of gene expression. miR-4443 is abnormally expressed in 12 diseases including cancer. The expression of miR-4443 is regulated by 3 upstream factors. miR-4443 has 12 downstream target genes. miR-4443 inhibits the expression of its target genes, thereby affecting the migration, proliferation, and invasion of pathological cells. miR-4443 participates in 4 signaling pathways and plays a role in the occurrence and development of several diseases. In addition, miR-4443 can also promote resistance to multiple drugs. Here, this article summarizes the aberrant expression of miR-4443 and its pathogenic molecular mechanisms in human diseases, which provides clues and directions for the follow-up research of miR-4443.

The Role of Crosstalk of Immune Cells in Pathogenesis of Chronic Spontaneous Urticaria

Chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU) is defined as recurrent episodes of spontaneous wheal development and/or angioedema for more than six weeks and at least twice a week. The core link in the pathogenesis of CSU is the activation of mast cells, T cells, eosinophils, and other immune cells infiltrating around the small venules of the lesion. Increased vascular permeability, vasodilatation, and recruitment of inflammatory cells directly depend on mast cell mediators’ release. Complex regulatory systems tightly influence the critical roles of mast cells in the local microenvironment. The bias toward Th2 inflammation and autoantibodies derived from B cells, histamine expressed by basophils, and initiation of the extrinsic coagulation pathway by eosinophils or monocytes exerts powerful modulatory influences on mast cells. Cell-to-cell interactions between mast cells and eosinophils/T cells also are regulators of their function and may involve CSU’s pathomechanism. This review summarizes up-to-date knowledge regarding the crosstalk between mast cells and other immune cells, providing the impetus to develop new research concepts and treatment strategies for CSU.

IgE-Mediated food allergy: Current diagnostic modalities and novel biomarkers with robust potential

Food allergy (FA) is a serious public health issue afflicting millions of people globally, with an estimated prevalence ranging from 1-10%. Management of FA is challenging due to overly restrictive diets and the lack of diagnostic approaches with high accuracy and prediction. Although measurement of serum-specific antibodies combined with patient medical history and skin prick test is a useful diagnostic tool, it is still an imprecise predictor of clinical reactivity with a high false-positive rate. The double-blind placebo-controlled food challenge represents the gold standard for FA diagnosis; however, it requires large healthcare and involves the risk of acute onset of allergic reactions. Improvement in our understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying allergic disease pathology, development of omics-based methods, and advances in bioinformatics have boosted the generation of a number of robust diagnostic biomarkers of FA. In this review, we discuss how traditional diagnostic modalities guide appropriate diagnosis and management of FA in clinical practice, as well as uncover the potential of the latest biomarkers for the diagnosis, monitoring, and prediction of FA. We also raise perspectives for precise and targeted medical intervention to fill the gap in the diagnosis of FA.

Extracellular Vesicles as Emerging Players in Intercellular Communication: Relevance in Mast Cell-Mediated Pathophysiology

Mast cells are major effector cells in eliciting allergic responses. They also play a significant role in establishing innate and adaptive immune responses, as well as in modulating tumor growth. Mast cells can be activated upon engagement of the high-affinity receptor FcεRI with specific IgE to multivalent antigens or in response to several FcεRI-independent mechanisms. Upon stimulation, mast cells secrete various preformed and newly synthesized mediators. Emerging evidence indicates their ability to be a rich source of secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes and microvesicles, which convey biological functions. Mast cell-derived EVs can interact with and affect other cells located nearby or at distant sites and modulate inflammation, allergic response, and tumor progression. Mast cells are also affected by EVs derived from other cells in the immune system or in the tumor microenvironment, which may activate mast cells to release different mediators. In this review, we summarize the latest data regarding the ability of mast cells to release or respond to EVs and their role in allergic responses, inflammation, and tumor progression. Understanding the release, composition, and uptake of EVs by cells located near to or at sites distant from mast cells in a variety of clinical conditions, such as allergic inflammation, mastocytosis, and lung cancer will contribute to developing novel therapeutic approaches.

Hemin-primed dendritic cells suppress allergic airway inflammation through releasing extracellular vesicles

Hemin, a substrate of heme oxygenase (HO)‐1, induces HO‐1 expression on a variety of cells to exert anti‐oxidant and anti‐inflammatory roles. However, the role of HO‐1 in allergic diseases for dendritic cells (DCs) is not fully understood. Here, we report that HO‐1 modulates asthmatic airway inflammation by hemin‐treated DC‐released extracellular vesicles (DCEVs). Following induction of bone marrow‐derived DCs by hemin and then by house dust mite (HDM) in vitro, mouse CD4+ naïve T cells were cocultured with DCEVs to determine T helper (h) cell differentiation. C57BL/6 mice were sensitized by different stimuli‐induced DCEVs and challenged with HDM to analyze the changes of inflammatory cells and cytokines in the lung and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. The results showed that hemin‐treated DCEVs (hemin‐DCEVs) express phosphatidylserine (PS), CD81, heat shock protein 70, and HO‐1, which facilitates regulatory T (Treg) cells differentiation in vitro and in vivo. In HDM‐induced asthmatic mouse model, hemin‐DCEVs inhalation reduced eosinophils infiltration and mucus secretion in the airway, decreased the levels of IL‐4, IL‐5, and IL‐13 in the lung and the number of Th2 cells in mediastinal lymph nodes (MLNs), and increased the number of Treg cells in MLNs. Thus, our study demonstrated, for the first time, that EVs from HO‐1‐overexpressing DCs alleviate allergic airway inflammation of eosinophilic asthma by potentiating Treg cells differentiation and limiting proinflammatory cytokine secretion, which expands our understanding of HO‐1 function, opening the door for HO‐1 inducer‐like hemin as a novel therapeutic strategy for asthma or other allergic diseases.

In silico Identification of 10 Hub Genes and an miRNA-mRNA Regulatory Network in Acute Kawasaki Disease

Kawasaki disease (KD) causes acute systemic vasculitis and has unknown etiology. Since the acute stage of KD is the most relevant, the aim of the present study was to identify hub genes in acute KD by bioinformatics analysis. We also aimed at constructing microRNA (miRNA)–messenger RNA (mRNA) regulatory networks associated with acute KD based on previously identified differentially expressed miRNAs (DE-miRNAs). DE-mRNAs in acute KD patients were screened using the mRNA expression profile data of GSE18606 from the Gene Expression Omnibus. The functional and pathway enrichment analysis of DE-mRNAs were performed with the DAVID database. Target genes of DE-miRNAs were predicted using the miRWalk database and their intersection with DE-mRNAs was obtained. From a protein–protein interaction (PPI) network established by the STRING database, Cytoscape software identified hub genes with the two topological analysis methods maximal clique centrality and Degree algorithm to construct a miRNA-hub gene network. A total of 1,063 DE-mRNAs were identified between acute KD and healthy individuals, 472 upregulated and 591 downregulated. The constructed PPI network with these DE-mRNAs identified 38 hub genes mostly enriched in pathways related to systemic lupus erythematosus, alcoholism, viral carcinogenesis, osteoclast differentiation, adipocytokine signaling pathway and tumor necrosis factor signaling pathway. Target genes were predicted for the up-regulated and down-regulated DE-miRNAs, 10,203, and 5,310, respectively. Subsequently, 355, and 130 overlapping target DE-mRNAs were obtained for upregulated and downregulated DE-miRNAs, respectively. PPI networks with these target DE-mRNAs produced 15 hub genes, six down-regulated and nine upregulated hub genes. Among these, ten genes (ATM, MDC1, CD59, CD177, TRPM2, FCAR, TSPAN14, LILRB2, SIRPA, and STAT3) were identified as hub genes in the PPI network of DE-mRNAs. Finally, we constructed the regulatory network of DE-miRNAs and hub genes, which suggested potential modulation of most hub genes by hsa-miR-4443 and hsa-miR-6510-5p. SP1 was predicted to potentially regulate most of DE-miRNAs. In conclusion, several hub genes are associated with acute KD. An miRNA–mRNA regulatory network potentially relevant for acute KD pathogenesis provides new insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms of acute KD. The latter may contribute to the diagnosis and treatment of acute KD.

Exosomes: A Key Piece in Asthmatic Inflammation

Asthma is a chronic disease of the airways that has an important inflammatory component. Multiple cells are implicated in asthma pathogenesis (lymphocytes, eosinophils, mast cells, basophils, neutrophils), releasing a wide variety of cytokines. These cells can exert their inflammatory functions throughout extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are small vesicles released by donor cells into the extracellular microenvironment that can be taken up by recipient cells. Depending on their size, EVs can be classified as microvesicles, exosomes, or apoptotic bodies. EVs are heterogeneous spherical structures secreted by almost all cell types. One of their main functions is to act as transporters of a wide range of molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and microRNAs (miRNAs), which are single-stranded RNAs of approximately 22 nucleotides in length. Therefore, exosomes could influence several physiological and pathological processes, including those involved in asthma. They can be detected in multiple cell types and biofluids, providing a wealth of information about the processes that take account in a pathological scenario. This review thus summarizes the most recent insights concerning the role of exosomes from different sources (several cell populations and biofluids) in one of the most prevalent respiratory diseases, asthma.

Cancer Cells Resistance Shaping by Tumor Infiltrating Myeloid Cells

Interactions between malignant cells and neighboring stromal and immune cells profoundly shape cancer progression. New forms of therapies targeting these cells have revolutionized the treatment of cancer. However, in order to specifically address each population, it was essential to identify and understand their individual roles in interaction between malignant cells, and the formation of the tumor microenvironment (TME). In this review, we focus on the myeloid cell compartment, a prominent, and heterogeneous group populating TME, which can initially exert an anti-tumoral effect, but with time actively participate in disease progression. Macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, mast cells, eosinophils, and basophils act alone or in concert to shape tumor cells resistance through cellular interaction and/or release of soluble factors favoring survival, proliferation, and migration of tumor cells, but also immune-escape and therapy resistance.

The Functional Heterogeneity of Neutrophil-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Reflects the Status of the Parent Cell

Similar to other cell types, neutrophilic granulocytes also release extracellular vesicles (EVs), mainly medium-sized microvesicles/microparticles. According to published data, authors have reached a consensus on the physical parameters (size, density) and chemical composition (surface proteins, proteomics) of neutrophil-derived EVs. In contrast, there is large diversity and even controversy in the reported functional properties. Part of the discrepancy may be ascribed to differences in the viability of the starting cells, in eliciting factors, in separation techniques and in storage conditions. However, the most recent data from our laboratory prove that the same population of neutrophils is able to generate EVs with different functional properties, transmitting pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory effects on neighboring cells. Previously we have shown that Mac-1 integrin is a key factor that switches anti-inflammatory EV generation into pro-inflammatory and antibacterial EV production. This paper reviews current knowledge on the functional alterations initiated by neutrophil-derived EVs, listing their effects according to the triggering agents and target cells. We summarize the presence of neutrophil-derived EVs in pathological processes and their perspectives in diagnostics and therapy. Finally, the functional heterogeneity of differently triggered EVs indicates that neutrophils are capable of producing a broad spectrum of EVs, depending on the environmental conditions prevailing at the time of EV genesis.

Emerging mechanisms contributing to mast cell-mediated pathophysiology with therapeutic implications

Mast cells are tissue-resident immune cells that play key roles in the initiation and perpetuation of allergic inflammation, usually through IgE-mediated mechanisms. Mast cells are, however, evolutionary ancient immune cells that can be traced back to urochordates and before the emergence of IgE antibodies, suggesting their involvement in antibody-independent biological functions, many of which are still being characterized. Herein, we summarize recent advances in understanding the roles of mast cells in health and disease, partly through the study of emerging non-IgE receptors such as the Mas-related G protein-coupled receptor X2, implicated in pseudo-allergic reactions as well as in innate defense and neuronal sensing; the mechano-sensing adhesion G protein-coupled receptor E2, variants of which are associated with familial vibratory urticaria; and purinergic receptors, which orchestrate tissue damage responses similarly to the IL-33 receptor. Recent evidence also points toward novel mechanisms that contribute to mast cell-mediated pathophysiology. Thus, in addition to releasing preformed mediators contained in granules and synthesizing mediators de novo, mast cells also secrete extracellular vesicles, which convey biological functions. Understanding their release, composition and uptake within a variety of clinical conditions will contribute to the understanding of disease specific pathology and likely lead the way to novel therapeutic approaches. We also discuss recent advances in the development of therapies targeting mast cell activity, including the ligation of inhibitory ITIM-containing receptors, and other strategies that suppress mast cells or responses to mediators for the management of mast cell-related diseases.

MicroRNA-4443 regulates monocyte activation by targeting tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factor 4 in stroke-induced immunosuppression

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been demonstrated to play crucial roles in the early stage of acute ischaemic stroke (AIS). The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression patterns of miRNAs in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from AIS patients and further explore related molecular mechanisms in stroke-induced immunodeficiency syndrome (SIDS).

METHODS

The miRNA expression patterns of PBMCs were detected by miRNA microarray and validated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) in AIS patients and healthy controls. Bioinformatics methods and luciferase reporter assays were used to detect the downstream target genes. Following stimulation with lipopolysaccharide and interleukin-4, the expression of miR-4443, tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factor 4 (TRAF4) and the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway were evaluated. Furthermore, transfection with miR-4443 mimic or inhibitor in the monocytes was carried out to gain insight into the mechanisms in SIDS.

RESULTS

Interleukin-10 in AIS patients was significantly higher than that of healthy controls. The miRNA microarray analysis and qRTPCR validation showed that only miR-4443 was upregulated expressed in PBMCs from AIS patients, especially in monocytes. miR-4443 was shown to directly interact with the 3' untranslated regions of TRAF4, resulting in suppression of TRAF4 protein expression. Furthermore, the expression of miR-4443 and TRAF4 was regulated by stimulation with lipopolysaccharide or interleukin-4. Additionally, overexpression of miR-4443 suppressed the TRAF4/Iκα/NF-κB signaling pathway to activate the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines in monocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

The increased expression of miR-4443 induced monocyte dysfunction by targeting TRAF4, which may function as a crucial mediator in SIDS.

A Polyethylene Glycol-Based Method for Enrichment of Extracellular Vesicles from Culture Supernatant of Human Ovarian Cancer Cell Line A2780 and Body Fluids of High-Grade Serous Carcinoma Patients

Objective

This study tried to evaluate whether 8% polyethylene glycol (PEG) 6000 precipitation combined with differential ultracentrifugation (PPDU) was an efficient and practical method for the enrichment and purification of extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from the culture supernatant of human ovarian cancer cell line A2780 and from body fluids of patients with high-grade serous carcinoma (HGSC).

Methods

PPDU was used to enrich and purify the EVs derived from body fluids of patients with HSGC and cell culture supernatant of subclones of human ovarian cancer cell line A2780 with high/low invasive capacity (named as A-H/A-L, respectively). Transmission electron microscope (TEM) and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) were used to identificate the EVs size and distribution. Western blots (WB) were used to detect the expression of CD9, CD63, Alix and Calnexin. The high-purity EVs derived from the cell culture supernatant of A-H/A-L were detected by the protein profile. Expression of integrins (ITGs) αV, β1 and β3 in the EVs derived from body fluids of HGSC patients was also evaluated.

Results

The diameter of EVs was about 30–260 nm observed under the TEM. Under the NTA identification, the peak size of EVs was ranged from 70 to 159nm. EVs derived from different specimens did not significantly differ in mean size and peak size. Presence of CD9, CD63 and Alix and absence of Calnexin were confirmed in the EVs. The protein concentrations of EVs’ sample extracted from A-H/A-L cell culture supernatant were 0.36µg/µL and 0.20µg/µL, respectively. The total amount of protein obtained from 300ul EVs was 108.02ug and 61.44ug, respectively. Totally, 2397 peptides and 952 proteins were identified by isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (ITRAQ). The expression of ITGαV, β1, and β3 in the EVs from plasma and ascites of HGSC patients was significantly higher than the control group (plasma: all P<0.0001; ascites: P=0.036, 0.001 and 0.004, respectively). The expression level of ITGαV and β1 in EVs of HGSC’s ascites was significantly higher than that in plasma (P= 0.004, 0.001, respectively). The expression of ITGβ3 was also slightly elevated in EVs-derived HGSC patients’ ascites (P=0.492).

Conclusion

PPDU was an efficient and practical method to enrich EVs from body fluids and cell culture supernatant. The characteristic expression of ITGαV, β1 and β3 in ascites and plasma EVs of patients with HGSC provided useful information on the development of EVs in HGSC.

Recent advances in mast cell activation and regulation

Mast cells are innate immune cells that intersect with the adaptive immunity and play a crucial role in the initiation of allergic reactions and the host defense against certain parasites and venoms. When activated in an allergen- and immunoglobulin E (IgE)-dependent manner, these cells secrete a large variety of allergenic mediators that are pre-stored in secretory granules or de novo–synthesized. Traditionally, studies have predominantly focused on understanding this mechanism of mast cell activation and regulation. Along this line of study, recent studies have shed light on what structural features are required for allergens and how IgE, particularly anaphylactic IgE, is produced. However, the last few years have seen a flurry of new studies on IgE-independent mast cell activation, particularly via Mrgprb2 (mouse) and MRGPRX2 (human). These studies have greatly advanced our understanding of how mast cells exert non-histaminergic itch, pain, and drug-induced pseudoallergy by interacting with sensory neurons. Recent studies have also characterized mast cell activation and regulation by interleukin-33 (IL-33) and other cytokines and by non-coding RNAs. These newly identified mechanisms for mast cell activation and regulation will further stimulate the allergy/immunology community to develop novel therapeutic strategies for treatment of allergic and non-allergic diseases.

Leptin-Responsive MiR-4443 Is a Small Regulatory RNA Independent of the Canonic MicroRNA Biogenesis Pathway

The human small RNA miR-4443 is functionally involved in several types of cancer and in the biology of the immune system, downstream of insulin and leptin signaling. Next generation sequencing evidence and structural prediction suggest that miR-4443 is not produced via the canonical Drosha–Exportin 5–Dicer pathway of microRNA biogenesis. We tested this hypothesis by using qRT-PCR to measure miR-4443 and other microRNA levels in HCT-116 cells with Drosha, Exportin 5, and Dicer knockouts, as well as in the parental cell line. Neither of the knockouts decreased miR-4443 levels, while the levels of canonical microRNAs (miR-21 and let-7f-5p) were dramatically reduced. Previously published Ago2-RIP-Seq data suggest a limited incorporation of miR-4443 into RISC, in agreement with the functional studies. The miR-4443 locus shows conservation in primates but not in other mammals, while its seed region appears in additional microRNAs. Our results suggest that miR-4443 is a Drosha, Exportin 5, and Dicer-independent, non-canonical small RNA produced by a yet unknown biogenesis pathway.

Extracellular vesicles and asthma: A review of the literature

Asthma is a chronic, recurrent and incurable allergy-related respiratory disease characterized by inflammation, bronchial hyperresponsiveness and narrowing of the airways. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a universal feature of cellular function and can be detected in different bodily fluids. Recent evidence has shown the possibility of using EVs in understanding the pathogenesis of asthma, including their potential as diagnostic and therapeutic tools. Studies have reported that EVs released from key cells involved in asthma can induce priming and activation of other asthma-associated cells. A literature review was conducted on all current research regarding the role and function of EVs in the pathogenesis of asthma via the PRISMA statement method. An electronic search was performed using EMBASE and PubMed through to November 2018. The EMBASE search returned 76 papers, while the PubMed search returned 211 papers. Following duplicate removal, titles and abstracts were screened for eligibility with a total of 34 studies included in the final qualitative analysis. The review found evidence of association between the presence of EVs and physiological changes characteristic of asthma, suggesting that EVs are involved in the pathogenesis, with the weight of evidence presently favouring deleterious effects of EVs in asthma. Numerous studies highlighted differences in exosomal contents between EVs of healthy and asthmatic individuals, which could be employed as potential diagnostic markers. In some circumstances, EVs were also found to be suppressive to disease, but more often promote inflammation and airway remodelling. In conclusion, EVs hold immense potential in understanding the pathophysiology of asthma, and as diagnostic and therapeutic markers. While more research is needed for definitive conclusions and their application in medical practice, the literature presented in this review should encourage further research and discovery within the field of EVs and asthma.

Salivary MicroRNA for Diagnosis of Cancer and Systemic Diseases: A Systematic Review

: Background: The aberrant expression of microRNAs (miRNAs) has been associated with several diseases, including cancer, inflammatory, and autoimmune conditions. Interest in salivary miRNAs as non-invasive tools for the diagnosis of malignancies and systemic diseases is rapidly increasing. The present systematic review was developed for answering the question: "Are salivary microRNAs reliable biomarkers for diagnosis of cancer and systemic diseases?"

METHODS

The application of inclusion and exclusion criteria led to the selection of 11 papers. Critical appraisals and quality assessments of the selected studies were performed through the National Institute of Health "Study Quality Assessment Tool" and the classification of the Oxford Center for Evidence-Based Medicine.

RESULTS

Seven studies reported statistically significant correlations between one or more salivary miRNAs and the investigated disease. The critical analysis allowed us to classify only two studies (18.2%) as having "good" quality, the rest being scored as "intermediate" (8; 73%) and "poor" (1; 9%). Evidence exists that salivary miR-940 and miR-3679-5p are reliable markers for pancreatic cancer and that miR140-5p and miR301a are promising molecules for the salivary diagnosis of gastric cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

Further studies, possibly avoiding the risk of bias highlighted here, are necessary to consolidate these findings and to identify new reliable salivary biomarkers.

Advances in drug allergy, urticaria, angioedema, and anaphylaxis in 2018

Many notable advances in drug allergy, urticaria, angioedema, and anaphylaxis were reported in 2018. Broad-spectrum antibiotic use and, consequently, antibiotic resistance are widespread, and algorithms to clarify β-lactam allergy and optimize antibiotic use were described. Meaningful data emerged on the pathogenesis of delayed drug hypersensitivity reactions. Progress not only in defining biomarkers but also in understanding the effect on quality of life and developing better treatments has been made for patients with chronic idiopathic urticaria. Patients with hereditary angioedema (HAE) have gained additional access to highly efficacious therapies, with associated improvements in quality of life, and some progress was made in our understanding of recurrent angioedema in patients with normal laboratory results. Guidelines have defined clear goals to help providers optimize therapies in patients with HAE. The epidemiology and triggers of anaphylaxis and the mechanisms underlying anaphylaxis were elucidated further. In summary, these disorders (and labels) cause substantial burdens for individual persons and even society. Fortunately, publications in 2018 have informed on advancements in diagnosis and management and have provided better understanding of mechanisms that potentially could yield new therapies. This progress should lead to better health outcomes and paths forward in patients with drug allergy, urticaria, HAE, and anaphylaxis.

MicroRNA Involvement in Allergic and Non-Allergic Mast Cell Activation

Allergic inflammation is accompanied by the coordinated expression of numerous genes and proteins that initiate, sustain, and propagate immune responses and tissue remodeling. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a large class of small regulatory molecules that are able to control the translation of target mRNAs and consequently regulate various biological processes at the posttranscriptional level. MiRNA profiles have been identified in multiple allergic inflammatory diseases and in the tumor microenvironment. Mast cells have been found to co-localize within the above conditions. More specifically, in addition to being essential in initiating the allergic response, mast cells play a key role in both innate and adaptive immunity as well as in modulating tumor growth. This review summarizes the possible role of various miRNAs in the above-mentioned processes wherein mast cells have been found to be involved. Understanding the role of miRNAs in mast cell activation and function may serve as an important tool in developing diagnostic as well as therapeutic approaches in mast cell-dependent pathological conditions.

Extracellular vesicles in autoimmune vasculitis - Little dirts light the fire in blood vessels

Systemic vasculitis is diverse group of autoimmune disorders which are characterized by inflammation of blood vessel walls with deep aching and burning pain. Their underlying etiology and pathophysiology still remain poorly understood. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, microvesicles (MVs), and apoptotic bodies, are membrane vesicular structures that are released either during cell activation, or when cells undergo programmed cell death, including apoptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis. Although EVs were thought as cell dusts, but now they have been found to be potently active since they harbor bioactive molecules, such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, or multi-molecular complexes. EVs can serve as novel mediators for cell-to-cell communications by delivery bioactive molecules from their parental cells to the recipient cells. Earlier studies mainly focused on MVs budding from membrane surface. Recent studies demonstrated that EVs may also carry molecules from cytoplasm or even from nucleus of their parental cells, and these EVs may carry autoantigens and are important in vasculitis. EVs may play important roles in vasculitis through their potential pathogenic involvements in inflammation, autoimmune responses, procoagulation, endothelial dysfunction/damage, angiogenesis, and intimal hyperplasia. EVs have also been used as specific biomarkers for diagnostic use or disease severity monitoring. In this review, we have focused on the aspects of EV biology most relevant to the pathogenesis of vasculitis, discussed their perspective insights, and summarized the exist literature on EV relevant studies in vasculitis, therefore provides an integration of current knowledge regarding the novel role of EVs in systemic vasculitis.

Prevention of allergy by virus-like nanoparticles (VNP) delivering shielded versions of major allergens in a humanized murine allergy model

Background

In high‐risk populations, allergen‐specific prophylaxis could protect from sensitization and subsequent development of allergic disease. However, such treatment might itself induce sensitization and allergies, thus requiring hypoallergenic vaccine formulations. We here characterized the preventive potential of virus‐like nanoparticles (VNP) expressing surface‐exposed or shielded allergens.

Methods

Full‐length major mugwort pollen allergen Art v 1 was selectively targeted either to the surface or to the inner side of the lipid bilayer envelope of VNP. Upon biochemical and immunological analysis, their preventive potential was determined in a humanized mouse model of mugwort pollen allergy.

Results

Virus‐like nanoparticles expressing shielded version of Art v 1, in contrast to those expressing surface‐exposed Art v 1, were hypoallergenic as they hardly induced degranulation of rat basophil leukemia cells sensitized with Art v 1‐specific mouse or human IgE. Both VNP versions induced proliferation and cytokine production of allergen‐specific T cells in vitro. Upon intranasal application in mice, VNP expressing surface‐exposed but not shielded allergen induced allergen‐specific antibodies, including IgE. Notably, preventive treatment with VNP expressing shielded allergen‐protected mice from subsequent sensitization with mugwort pollen extract. Protection was associated with a Th1/Treg‐dominated cytokine response, increased Foxp3⁺ Treg numbers in lungs, and reduced lung resistance when compared to mice treated with empty particles.

Conclusion

Virus‐like nanoparticles represent a novel and versatile platform for the in vivo delivery of allergens to selectively target T cells and prevent allergies without inducing allergic reactions or allergic sensitization.

Large Extracellular Vesicles: Have We Found the Holy Grail of Inflammation?

The terms microparticles (MPs) and microvesicles (MVs) refer to large extracellular vesicles (EVs) generated from a broad spectrum of cells upon its activation or death by apoptosis. The unique surface antigens of MPs/MVs allow for the identification of their cellular origin as well as its functional characterization. Two basic aspects of MP/MV functions in physiology and pathological conditions are widely considered. Firstly, it has become evident that large EVs have strong procoagulant properties. Secondly, experimental and clinical studies have shown that MPs/MVs play a crucial role in the pathophysiology of inflammation-associated disorders. A cardinal feature of these disorders is an enhanced generation of platelets-, endothelial-, and leukocyte-derived EVs. Nevertheless, anti-inflammatory effects of miscellaneous EV types have also been described, which provided important new insights into the large EV-inflammation axis. Advances in understanding the biology of MPs/MVs have led to the preparation of this review article aimed at discussing the association between large EVs and inflammation, depending on their cellular origin.

Exosomal proteins as potential markers of tumor diagnosis

Liquid biopsy especially that of exosomes carries tumor-specific molecules and provides useful information during tumor development and progression in "real time." Exosomes are membrane-encapsulated vesicles, constantly released by multiple cells, including cancer cells, in large quantities, and are widely present in body fluids. Tumor exosomes can remodel a tumor-supportive microenvironment via cross-talk with target cells. Recent research has mainly focused on exosomal miRNAs and to a small degree on proteins. However, detecting the genome output (active proteins such as phosphoproteins) can provide more direct information about disease progression, such as in the early discovery and monitoring of cancers. This review highlights the unique features of exosomal proteins over traditional serological markers and summarizes their recent use in cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Furthermore, we describe the general protocols of research on exosome proteomics with an emphasis on their clinical use.

MicroRNA-4443 Causes CD4+ T Cells Dysfunction by Targeting TNFR-Associated Factor 4 in Graves' Disease

Context

Aberrant CD4+ T cell function plays a critical role in the process of Graves’ disease (GD). MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators of T cell activation, proliferation, and cytokine production. However, the contribution of miRNAs to CD4+ T cell dysfunction in GD remains unclear.

Objective

To investigate how certain miRNA causes aberrant CD4+ T cell function in GD patients.

Methods

We compared the expression pattern of miRNAs in CD4+ T cells from untreated GD (UGD) patients with those from healthy controls. The most significantly dysregulated miRNAs were selected and their correlations with clinical parameters were analyzed. The effect of miR-4443 on CD4+ T cells cytokines production and proliferation was assessed. The potential gene target was identified and validated.

Results

GD patients had unique pattern of miRNA expression profile in CD4+ T cells comparing to healthy subjects. miR-10a, miR-125b, and miR-4443 were the three most significantly dysregulated miRNAs. The elevated miR-4443 levels were strongly correlated with clinical parameters in an independent dataset of UGD patients (N = 40), while miR-4443 was normally expressed in GD patients with euthyroidism and negative TRAb level. We found that miR-4443 directly inhibited TNFR-associated factor (TRAF) 4 expression to increase CD4+ T cells cytokines secretion as well as proliferation through the NF-κB pathway. Furthermore, the TRAF4 levels in GD patients were inversely correlated with miR-4443, and knocking down TRAF4 had a similar effect with miR-4443 overexpression.

Conclusion

The increased expression of miR-4443 induced CD4+ T cells dysfunction by targeting TRAF4, which may cause GD.