The relationship between challenging parenting behaviour and childhood anxiety disorders

Commemorating the monkey bars, catalyst of debate at the intersection of human evolutionary biology and public health

Play is an essential part of childhood, and growing attention has focused on the potential health benefits of 'risky' or 'thrill-seeking' play. Such play behavior is readily observed on any playground, where it can sometimes lead to injuries--most often from fall impacts--that require medical attention. Monkey bars account for ~7% of childhood arm fractures in the USA, an alarming statistic that raises difficult questions over its costs and benefits. Many authors view monkey bars as a public health hazard, but it is plausible that our childhood impulse toward thrill-seeking play is a result of selective pressures throughout our primate evolutionary history. Indeed, emerging evidence suggests that the developmental benefits of thrill-seeking play extend into adulthood, outweighing the occasional costs of injury. Disparate and consequential, these dueling perspectives have fueled debate among health professionals and policymakers, but with little attention to the work of biological anthropologists. Here we call attention to the hominin fossil record and play behaviors of non-human primates, providing a novel perspective that bolsters arguments for the adaptive significance of thrill-seeking play. The moment for such a review is timely, for it commemorates the centennial anniversaries of two playground icons: the jungle gym and monkey bars.

Paternal Activation as a Protective Factor against Problem Behaviors in Early Childhood

Activation parenting includes behaviors that challenge children to approach novel situations, explore their environments, and take physical and socioemotional risks through a balance of encouragement and limit-setting. Although components of activation parenting have been linked to lower levels of children's problem behaviors, comprehensive measures of activation parenting and longitudinal research on families from low socioeconomic backgrounds are lacking. The goal of the present study was to test associations between paternal activation parenting at age 3 and children's externalizing and internalizing problems at age 5 in a sample of low-income, ethnically diverse fathers. Participating fathers (N = 171; 9% Black, 47% white, 8% Latinx; mean household income = $25,145) and their children (51% female) were drawn from the Early Steps Multisite Study. Activation parenting during a teaching task at child age 3 was associated with lower levels of internalizing problems at age 5 and decreases in externalizing problems from baseline (age 2). Implications of the current findings are presented for future research on associations between activation parenting and child problem behaviors, including the potential for the development of prevention and intervention programs.

Associations between challenging parenting behavior and creative tendencies of children: the chain mediating roles of positive emotion and creative self-efficacy

Background

Parenting behavior has been reported to be closely associated with children's creativity, yet the association between challenging parenting behavior and children's creative tendencies, as well as the potential mechanisms connecting the two, remains ambiguous. Based on the Social Cognitive Theory and the Self-efficacy Theory, this study aims to examine the correlation between Chinese parents' challenging parenting behaviors and their children's creative tendencies, as well as the chain mediating role of children's positive emotions and creative self-efficacy.

Methods

In total, 2,647 families were surveyed with questionnaires completed by parents on the Challenging Parenting Behaviors Scale and by children on the Positive/Negative Emotions Scale, the Creative Self-efficacy Scale, and the Williams Creative Tendency Test Scale, and analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) in SPSS 22.0 and Mplus 8.3.

Results

The findings indicate that challenging parenting behavior has a positive correlation with children's positive emotions, creative self-efficacy, and creative tendencies. Through positive emotions, creative self-efficacy, and a chain mediated pathway between these two variables, challenging parenting behaviors increase children's creative tendencies.

Conclusion

The favorable impacts of challenging parenting behaviors on children's creative tendencies, with the mediating effects of children's positive emotions and creative self-efficacy, may help Chinese parents better grasp the mechanisms underlying this association.

Brain development mediates the relationship between self-reported poor parental monitoring and adolescent anxiety

Adolescence is the peak period for the onset of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Brain networks of cognitive and affective control in adolescents are not well developed when their exposure to external stimuli suddenly increases.Reasonable parental monitoring is especially important during this period.To examine the role of parental monitoring in the development of functional brain networks of GAD, we conducted a cross-validation-based predictive study based on the functional brain networks of 192 participants. We found that a set of functional brain networks, especially the default mode network and its connectivity with the frontoparietal network, could predict the ages of adolescents, which was replicated in three independent samples.Importantly, the difference between predicted age and chronological age significantly mediated the relationship between parental monitoring and anxiety levels. These findings suggest that inadequate parental monitoring plays a crucial role in the delayed development of specific brain networks associated with GAD in adolescents. Our work highlights the important role of parental monitoring in adolescent development.

Personality Characteristics of Children and Adolescents with Anxiety Disorder from a Maternal Perspective: A Brief Report

The present study assessed the personality characteristics of children and adolescents with anxiety disorder from a maternal perspective. A total of 48 children and adolescents aged between 8 and 17 years participated in this study, which was organized as follows: a clinical group (24 children and adolescents with anxiety disorders and their respective mothers) and a control group (24 children and adolescents without psychiatric diagnosis and their mothers). The participants were submitted to the WASI, CBCL, MASC-2, and EPQ-J tests and their mothers to the SRQ-20 and PIC-2 tests. The results showed higher rates of internalizing symptoms in the clinical group. In addition, patients showed less interest in hobbies, less adherence to social organizations, impairment in social activities, and commitment to school performance compared to the control group. There was a positive correlation between the mothers' symptoms and each of the following PIC-2 domains: somatic concern (p < 0.01) and psychological discomfort (p < 0.01). In conclusion, youths with AD showed a withdrawn and reserved personality profile, involving distrust of impulses and avoidance of interactions with peers. Furthermore, psychoemotional problems of mothers adversely influenced the perception followed by anxiety and adjustment characteristics. More studies are needed to assess the maternal personality in youths with anxiety.

Challenging Parenting Behaviour and Anxiety Disorders in Emerging Adulthood

Challenging parenting behaviour (CPB) refers to parental encouragement of behaviours where children push their own limits through engaging them engage in safe risks, such as rough-and-tumble play (Bögels & Phares, 2008). Preliminary evidence suggests that CPB reduces the risk of child anxiety however, little is known about the relationship between CPB and specific forms of anxiety disorders and the factors that influence this relationship. The present study aims to examine current maternal and paternal CPB in relation to symptoms of generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) in emerging adulthood, and to identify whether intolerance of uncertainty (IU) and cognitive avoidance (CA) sequentially mediate this relationship. A sample of 190 UK-based adults (aged 18-25) completed a battery of online self-report measures. Greater maternal CPB, but not paternal CPB, was found to predict lower symptoms of SAD, but not GAD. IU and CA did not sequentially mediate the relationship between CPB and symptoms of GAD or SAD. This study suggests that CPB may be associated with certain forms of anxiety disorders such as SAD, but further investigation is needed to understand the mechanisms between CPB and anxiety in young people.

Same Behaviors, Different Outcomes: Mothers' and Fathers' Observed Challenging Behaviors Measured Using a New Coding System Relate Differentially to Children's Social-Emotional Development

This study used a newly developed coding system for measuring the quality of parenting behavior to examine associations with children’s social-emotional development. The Risky Interaction Support and Challenge Scale (RISCS) measures the extent to which parents engage in behaviors that present physical and regulatory challenges to children, as well as parents’ tendency to allow children to pursue action goals autonomously. These behaviors were observed while parents (n = 57 fathers; n = 55 mothers; n = 50 pairs) interacted with their 1-year-olds who played on a structure that included a slide, a small climbing wall, and a tunnel. Trained raters reliably used the RISCS to measure several dimensions of parent behaviors related to children’s exploration, and all but one of the dimensions captured adequate variability in parent behavior. Although mothers and fathers did not differ in any of the dimensions, the associations between parent behavior and children’s social-emotional development did not overlap. Fathers who engaged in greater autonomy allowance and lower overprotection had toddlers with lower levels of internalizing behavior, whereas mothers who challenged children’s regulatory competence had toddlers with lower levels of externalizing behavior and greater competence. We discuss the implications of the findings for the literature on attachment theory and father-child relationships.

Challenging Parenting Behaviors in Ethnically Diverse Two-Parent Families in the United States: Association with Infants' Social Competence and Behavior Problems

We used data from a sample of ethnically diverse first-time parents (N = 186) in the United States to examine differences between mothers' and fathers' challenging parenting behaviors (CPB) when infants were 9 months old as well as covariates of CPB. We also examined associations between CPB and infants' social competence and behavior problems when they were 12 months old. Results showed no differences between mothers and fathers in the level of CPB with their infants. Mothers with more depressive symptoms engaged in more CPB. Over and above the contributions of infants' gender and temperament and parents' education, mothers' and fathers' CPB was not associated with infants' social competence and behavior problems. This study expands our understanding of the universality of CPB and whether it is associated with social competence in ethnically diverse families.

Childhood Anxiety: Prenatal Maternal Stress and Parenting in the QF2011 Cohort

In this study we examine whether specific 'anxiety-maintaining' parenting behaviors (i.e., overinvolvement and/or negativity) exacerbate the effects of disaster-related prenatal maternal stress (PNMS) on school-age anxiety symptoms. Women (N = 230), pregnant at the time of the 2011 Queensland Floods, reported on their experience of flood-related PNMS (objective hardship, cognitive appraisal, subjective distress). At 4-years, mother-child dyads were coded for maternal overinvolvement and negativity during a challenging task; at 6-years mothers reported on their children's anxiety symptoms and their own mood, N = 83. Results showed no associations between PNMS and 6-year anxiety, nor did parenting moderate these effects. Poorer maternal concurrent mood was associated with greater anxiety symptoms at 6 years (β = 0.52). Findings suggest maternal concurrent mood, but not exposure to disaster-related PNMS nor 'anxiety-maintaining' parenting behaviors at preschool age, is related to school-age anxiety symptoms.

The Premise and Promise of Activation Parenting for Fathers: A Review and Integration of Extant Literature

Although research on fathers tends to focus on mother-derived conceptualizations of caregiving, such as sensitivity, it has been theorized that fathers play a unique role in opening their children to the world by encouraging exploration and risk-taking. However, extant research on these forms of paternal caregiving is scattered across multiple related but distinct domains, namely rough-and-tumble play, challenging parenting behavior, and the activation relationship. Based on the overlap in theory and operationalizations of these domains, the present review aimed to define and operationalize a new caregiving construct: activation parenting (AP). Fathers who exhibit frequent and high-quality AP behaviors encourage children to take risks, challenge children physically and socioemotionally, and set appropriate limits during stimulating interactions to ensure safety and prevent over-arousal. Using Belsky's (1984) process of parenting model as a foundation, associations between paternal AP and characteristics of the father, his environment, and his child are reviewed, with a focus on early childhood (i.e., ages 0-5 years). The present review found some support for paternal AP occurring more frequently, but not necessarily with higher quality, when fathers had children older than one years old. Unexpectedly, the frequency and quality of paternal AP did not differ much by paternal age or indicators of socioeconomic status, or by child age or gender. In line with underlying theories, higher quality paternal AP in early childhood has been found to be associated with children's self-regulation skills and lower levels of internalizing and externalizing problems. Limitations of the current paternal AP literature are discussed and future directions for research, policy, and clinical work are proposed.

Internalizing and externalizing problems in preschool children: The role of mothers' and fathers' observed parenting behavior in a well-resourced sample

Empirical evidence links sensitive parenting behavior to positive developmental trajectories in children, whereas parental intrusiveness, in contrast, has been found to increase the risk of socio-emotional problems in children of various ages. However, most studies investigating the effect of parenting behavior have been conducted with mothers. Thus, little is yet known about fathers' role in child development and if mothers' and fathers' parenting behaviors are linked to child socio-emotional outcomes in similar or different ways. To date, findings are ambiguous, and this is why more studies are needed. The present study examined associations between mothers' and fathers' observed sensitivity and intrusiveness and children's internalizing and externalizing problems as reported by parents and by children themselves. The sample compromised 52 mothers, 41 fathers and their preschool children. Results from hierarchical regression analyses showed a negative association between fathers' intrusiveness, at low levels, and children's internalizing problems. This result was unexpected. However, in line with this finding, a number of recent studies suggest that when fathers challenge and push their children's limits, it buffers against emotional problems such as anxiety. The present study highlights the importance of a continuous investigation into fathers' potentially unique contribution to children's socio-emotional development. No other associations were identified between mothers' and fathers' parenting behaviors and children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Most likely, because this study was conducted with a low-risk sample, where children were in general well-functioning.

Adventurous Play as a Mechanism for Reducing Risk for Childhood Anxiety: A Conceptual Model

In this conceptual article, we draw upon the literature regarding cognitive and behavioural factors that underpin childhood anxiety to outline how a range of these risk markers might be targeted through adventurous play. When children play in an adventurous way, climbing trees, riding their bikes fast downhill and jumping from rocks, they experience feelings of fear and excitement, thrill and adrenaline. We propose that the positive, thrilling and playful emotions associated with this type of child-led play facilitate exposure to fear-provoking situations and, in doing so, provide opportunities for children to learn about physiological arousal, uncertainty and coping. We hypothesise that these learning opportunities will, over time, reduce children's risk for elevated anxiety by increasing children's expectations and ability to cope with anxiety, decreasing intolerance of uncertainty and preventing catastrophic misinterpretations of physiological arousal. If our conceptual model is correct, then ensuring that children have the physical and psychological space required to play in an adventurous way may help to decrease their risk for elevated or clinical anxiety.

Parent- and Child-Factors in Specific Phobias: The Interplay of Overprotection and Negative Affectivity

Specific phobias are among the most prevalent anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Although brief and intensive treatments are evidence-based interventions (Davis III et al. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 15, 233-256, 2019), up to one-third of youth do not show significant change in their symptoms following these interventions. Hence, consideration of additional factors influencing treatment response is necessary. Child-factors such as temperament and parent-factors such as parenting behaviors both contribute to the development of specific phobias and their maintenance over time. Specifically, we addressed child temperament (negative affectivity) and parenting behaviors (overprotection) that could uniquely predict clinical outcomes for specific phobias and that might interact to inform goodness-of-fit in the context of these interventions. We also considered whether child- and/or parent-gender shaped the effects of temperament or parenting on clinical outcomes. Participants were 125 treatment-seeking youth (M age = 8.80 years; age range = 6-15 years; 51.5% girls) who met criteria for specific phobia and their mothers and fathers. Mothers' reports of children's negative affectivity uniquely predicted poorer specific phobia symptom severity and global clinical adjustment at post-treatment. Interaction effects were supported between parental overprotection and child negative affectivity for post-treatment fearfulness. The direction of these effects differed between fathers and mothers, suggesting that goodness-of-fit is important to consider, and that parent gender may provide additional nuance to considerations of parent-child fit indices.

Early Childhood Predictors of Anxiety in Early Adolescence

This longitudinal study examined a multitude of early childhood predictors of anxiety symptoms and disorders over an 8-year period. The purpose of the study was to identify early life predictors of anxiety across childhood and early adolescence in a sample of at-risk children. The sample included 202 preschool children initially identified as behaviorally inhibited or uninhibited between the ages of 3 years 2 months and 4 years 5 months. Temperament and familial environment variables were assessed using observation and parent report at baseline. Anxiety symptoms and disorders were assessed using questionnaires and diagnostic interviews at baseline (age 4), and at age 6, 9 and 12 years. In line with our hypotheses, the findings showed that preschool children were more likely to experience anxiety symptoms and disorders over time i) when the child was inhibited, ii) when there was a history of maternal anxiety disorders or iii) when mothers displayed high levels of overinvolvement. Further, the study identified a significant interaction effect between temperament and maternal overvinvolvement such that behaviorally inhibited preschoolers had higher anxiety symptoms at age 12, only in the presence of maternal overinvolvement at age 4. The increased risk of anxiety in inhibited children was mitigated when mothers demonstrated low levels of overinvolvement at age 4. This study provides evidence of both additive and interactive effects of temperament and family environment on the development of anxiety and provides important information for the identification of families who will most likely benefit from targeted early intervention.

Suggesting teaching methods by analyzing the behavior of children with special needs

The behavioral pattern of children with special needs depends on their emotional and developmental disability. Any abnormal and incorrect pattern of behavior which is below the level of development as the expected norm can be considered as “the challenging behavior.” For supporting children with behavioral problems, many interventions and strategies alone, or in combination, are used. Behavioral and developmental problems, if not treated well, in childhood, may cause a problem and have negative long-term and short-term effects on a child’s personal life, education, family, and professional life. Detailed knowledge about the child’s behavior is important to define the problem. Hence, the software contains the questionnaire pattern, which is divided into categories like parents, teachers, doctors, and friends. Child behavior checklist is used to define the questionnaire. Images and video analysis are used to detect the current emotion in the child. By analyzing the behavioral pattern and current emotion, the teaching method will be suggested.

Intergenerational transmission of attentional bias and anxiety

Earlier evidence has revealed a bi-directional causal relationship between anxiety and attention biases in adults and children. This study investigated the prospective and concurrent relations between anxiety and attentional bias in a sample of 89 families (mothers, fathers, and first-born children). Parents' and children's attentional bias was measured when children were 7.5 years old, using both a visual probe task and visual search task with angry versus happy facial expressions. Generalized and social anxiety symptoms in parents and children were measured when children were 4.5 and 7.5 years old. Anxiety in parents and children was prospectively (but not concurrently) related to their respective attentional biases to threat: All participants showed a larger attentional bias to threat in the visual search (but not in the visual probe) task if they were more anxious at the 4.5 (but not at the 7.5) year measurement. Moreover, parents' anxiety levels were prospectively predictive of the visual search attentional bias of their children after controlling for child anxiety. More anxiety in mothers at 4.5 years was related to a faster detection of angry among happy faces, while more anxiety in fathers predicted a faster detection of happy among angry faces in children at 7.5 years. We found no direct association between parental and child attentional biases. Our study contributes to the recently emerging literature on attentional biases as a potential mechanism in the intergenerational transmission of anxiety by showing that parents' anxiety rather than parents' attentional bias contributes to the intergenerational transmission of risk for child anxiety.

Psychometric validation of the Young Parenting Inventory - Revised (YPI-R2): Replication and Extension of a commonly used parenting scale in Schema Therapy (ST) research and practice

This study aimed at developing a revised validated version of the Young Parenting Inventory (YPI) known as YPI-R2 that had 17 theoretical subscales. Using separate ratings for fathers and mothers samples from Singapore (n = 582, 617), Manila (n = 520, 538), Jakarta (n = 366, 383), and the USA (n = 204, 214), exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were conducted. This resulted in five subscales for fathers and six for mothers. The 17 theoretical subscales were not supported. Construct, convergent, and divergent validity of this new revised alternative YPI-R2 were also demonstrated. The stringent incremental validity test showed that the YPI-R2 accounted for additional statistically significant variance over and above that contributed by gender and three other established parenting instruments in predicting clinically relevant outcomes. Partial invariance of its factor structure was demonstrated through multigroup CFA using Eastern and Western samples. Finally, significant correlations with the 18 Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMSs) supported a central tenet of schema therapy that these are associated with early negative parenting patterns. Parenting norms in both Eastern and Western cultures that were associated with ill-being were also discussed thus showing the cross-cultural relevance of the YPI-R2.

Paternal Anxiety in Relation to Toddler Anxiety: The Mediating Role of Maternal Behavior

Despite robust investigations examining the impact of maternal anxiety and parenting behaviors and child anxiety risk, less is understood about the impact of paternal anxiety and parenting behaviors on child anxiety risk, particularly within the broader family context. An Actor Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) was used to examine whether paternal anxiety longitudinally predicted child anxiety risk indirectly through maternal and paternal parenting behaviors, while controlling for maternal anxiety. Both fathers and mothers of 12- to 30-month-olds (n = 94) provided self-report of their anxiety and parenting behaviors. Child inhibited temperament (i.e., anxiety risk) was coded. Two APIMs separately considering encouragement of independence and overprotection were examined. These models revealed no direct relation between parent and child anxiety while controlling for parenting behaviors. Models did suggest that paternal anxiety is indirectly linked with future child anxiety through lower maternal encouragement of independence, but not through maternal overprotection or paternal parenting behaviors.

Fathers' challenging parenting behavior predicts less subsequent anxiety symptoms in early childhood

Recent theories propose that (especially fathers') challenging parenting behavior (CPB) serves to reduce offspring's anxiety development, and that fearful children are more susceptible to parenting. Using a longitudinal design we explored whether more CPB (and less overprotection) of both parents, (1) separately, (2) relatively, and (3) jointly predicts less anxiety in early childhood, and (4) whether child fearful temperament moderates these relations. Participants were 132 couples with their first-born child. Child fearful temperament was observed at 4 months and 1 year, and parents' CPB and overprotection at 1 and 2.5 years. Child anxiety symptoms were assessed at 2.5 and 4.5 years. Multilevel analyses showed that more CPB and, unexpectedly, more overprotection predicted less child anxiety. Relatively, fathers' CPB and mothers' overprotection predicted less anxiety. An interaction showed that if one parent shows low CPB, the other parent's higher CPB predicts less child anxiety. A trend interaction suggested that fathers' CPB predicts less anxiety most strongly for fearful children. Thus, fathers' CPB appears to play a protective role in anxiety development, possibly in particular for children most vulnerable to develop anxiety problems. Parents can compensate for a less challenging partner. The finding that maternal overprotection mitigates child anxiety requires further investigation.

The Structure of Challenging Parenting Behavior and Associations With Anxiety in Dutch and Australian Children

Challenging parenting behavior (CPB), a novel construct involving active physical and verbal behaviors that encourage children to push their limits, has been identified as a potential buffer against child anxiety. This study aimed to (a) evaluate the measurement invariance of the Challenging Parenting Behavior Questionnaire (CPBQ4-6) across Dutch and Australian mothers and fathers of preschoolers, (b) examine differences in levels of CPB across mothers and fathers and across countries, and (c) examine whether parents' CPB predicts less child anxiety symptoms and disorders. Participants were 312 families-146 Dutch and 166 Australian-with their 3- to 4-year-old child (55.8% girls). Fathers' and mothers' CPB was measured using the CPBQ4-6, and child anxiety symptoms and presence of anxiety disorders were assessed using maternal reports. Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses revealed equivalence of factor structure and factor loadings (all significant) of the CPBQ4-6 across mothers and fathers and across countries. Evidence of partial scalar invariance indicated that the groups differed on some subscales of the CPBQ4-6. Australian mothers scored lower on the CPB factor than Australian fathers and Dutch parents. Structural equation models showed that CPB predicted fewer child anxiety symptoms and anxiety disorders for all groups. The study confirms that the CPBQ4-6 is appropriate for use with Dutch and Australian parents of preschool-age children and identifies CPB as a multifaceted and coherent construct. The negative relations between CPB and child anxiety suggest that CPB has a protective role in childhood anxiety and is important to examine in future research and interventions.

Psychiatric dimensions in mothers of children with primary nocturnal enuresis: A controlled study

INTRODUCTION

The etiology of primary nocturnal enuresis (PNE) is not fully understood, but multifactorial factors have been associated with PNE. Parental factors, including attitudes to PNE, disciplinary behaviors, and psychiatric comorbidities in parents have been related to etiology of PNE, outcomes and the quality of life in children with enuresis.

OBJECTIVE

We examined the psychopathology in mothers of children diagnosed with monosymptomatic PNE(MoPNE) compared with mothers of non-enuretic children (MoNEC) in terms of personality characteristics, early traumatic experiences, and psychiatric symptom evaluation.

STUDY DESIGN

The study included 44 mothers of children diagnosed with PNE and 45 mothers of non-enuretic children who were randomly selected from the population applying to the pediatric outpatient clinic. Individuals were assessed through psychometric questionnaires, including the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised Abbreviated (EPQR-A), the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90-R), and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), in addition to a sociodemographic form including 9 structured "yes/no" questions that evaluated intrafamilial relationships, as well as mothers' perceptions of enuresis and its treatment.

RESULTS

The median age of enuretic children was 7 (6, 9.5) (25th, 75th) years in the study population. The rates of history of enuresis in childhood were 26.7% in the MoPNE group (n = 12) and 6.7% in the MoNEC group (n = 3; p = 0.011). There were significant differences between the groups for the subscales of somatization, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive behavior, depression, interpersonal sensitivity, psychoticism, hostility, phobic anxiety, additional items, and the general psychopathology index in the SCL-90-R scores (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, there was no significant difference for the subscale of paranoid ideation (p = 0.070). There were statistically significant results for the subscales of sexual abuse, physical neglect, and total score in CTQ scale, while the personality dimensions evaluated using the EPQR-A resulted in significant differences in the E and L subscales (p < 0.05) (Table).

CONCLUSION

Our study showed that psychiatric symptomatology and childhood traumatic experiences were considerably higher in mothers of children with PNE. This study highlights the importance of evaluating PNE not only from a biological aspect, but also in terms of psychosocial factors, including assessment of the mother's mental status.

Mütterliches Expressed Emotion und elterliche Angst vor negativer Bewertung bei Kindern mit sozialer Angststörung

Zusammenfassung. Theoretischer Hintergrund: Ziel dieser Studie ist die Untersuchung von Expressed Emotion (EE) als Faktor des familiären Klimas sowie elterlicher Angst vor negativer Bewertung des Kindes als potentieller Mediator für den Zusammenhang von sozialer Angst der Eltern und Kinder. Methode: Kinder mit Sozialer Angststörung (SAS; n = 64) und ohne SAS (healthy control, HC, n = 52) sowie deren Eltern (Mütter und Väter) berichteten über eigene soziale Ängste und ihre Angst vor negativer Bewertung des Kindes. Mütter nahmen zudem am Five Minute Speech Sample (FMSS) zur Erhebung von EE teil. Ergebnisse: Berichte von Müttern von Kindern mit einer SAS wurden häufiger als High Expressed Emotion (HEE) eingestuft als Berichte von Müttern von HC Kindern. Es zeigte sich ein Zusammenhang von EE und sozialer Angst der Mutter wie auch mütterlicher Angst vor negativer Bewertung des Kindes. Zudem wurde der Zusammenhang zwischen kindlicher und mütterlicher sozialer Angst partiell durch die Angst vor negativer Bewertung des Kindes mediiert. Schlussfolgerungen: Es konnte ein Zusammenhang von kindlicher SAS und gleichzeitig erhöhtem EE der Mütter gezeigt werden. Erhöhte Angst vor negativer Bewertung des Kindes stellt einen potenziellen Mechanismus dar, wie mütterliche, nicht aber väterliche, soziale Angst an das Kind vermittelt werden kann.