Affect intensity: association with anxious and fearful responding to bodily sensations

The relationship between peer victimization and social anxiety among adolescents: a moderated mediation model with cognitive flexibility and affect intensity

Building a friendship with peers is an important developmental task. However, peer victimization and social anxiety are among the most disturbing problems and have impaired adolescents' adaptive development. A total of 942 adolescents completed the survey. The results showed that peer victimization was related to social anxiety and that this effect was mediated by cognitive flexibility and moderated by affect intensity. Specifically, the damage of peer victimization and social anxiety was aggrevated for those with high levels of affect intensity. The current study provides evidence for the association between peer victimization and social anxiety. It contributes to the literature by clarifying the equivocal findings and uncovering the underlying mechanisms of the relationship between peer victimization and social anxiety. In the future, researchers and teachers should pay attention to adolescents' peer social status as early as possible, especially for adolescents with higher levels of affect intensity.

Charting the physiological time course of help-seeking during late childhood: Patterns of individual difference

In this study, we explored whether variability in children's physiological reactivity-respiratory sinus arrhythmia and electrodermal activity-predict concurrent and subsequent levels of children's observed help-seeking (HS) from their mothers during a failure task. In addition, we tested whether children's perceptions of maternal positivity pre-task (CPMP) and children's fearful temperament moderate these effects. In a community sample of 101 mother-child dyads, children (8-12 years of age) underwent a repeated failure task while their respiratory sinus arrythmia and electrodermal activity were monitored; their HS behaviors were later coded. Multilevel path analyses indicated that high-fearful children increased their HS at the same time as and following increased physiological reactivity regardless of CPMP pre-task. Low-fearful children showed increases in HS at the same time as and following increased physiological reactivity only when they perceived their mothers' affect to be positive. This study demonstrates children's individual differences in the physiological underpinning of time-linked HS behaviors.

The influence of the menstrual cycle on reactivity to a CO2 challenge among women with and without premenstrual symptoms

Clinically significant premenstrual symptoms (PMS) is conceptualized as a depressive disorder in DSM-5, however, it may share pathophysiological processes with anxiety- and fear-related disorders. Specifically, women with PMS panic at higher rates during biological challenge procedures. It is unclear if this increased interoceptive sensitivity is a general vulnerability or specific to the premenstrual phase. The current study examined the role of menstrual cycle phase on reactivity to a CO₂ challenge among women with (n = 11) and without (n = 26) clinically significant PMS (N = 37). During the late follicular phase (days 6-12), women with and without PMS responded similarly to the CO₂ challenge, whereas during the premenstrual phase (within 5 days before menses), women with PMS reported significantly more intense panic symptoms in response to the challenge than women without PMS. Vulnerability to panic in women with PMS may be specific to the premenstrual phase. Potential psychological and neurobiological mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are discussed.

Live happily live in hiding (from our affect): Alexithymia Influences affect intensity and affect frequency ratings in men

Alexithymia has been frequently studied in the context of negative affect frequency but rarely in the context of positive affect frequency or in the context of affect intensity. However, affect intensity and frequency, even if they are independent, are generally confounded due to an overlap in items wording (tapping both dimensions). The aim of the study was to examine the incremental validity of alexithymia for predicting both affect intensity and frequency, regarding positive and negative valence. Two hundred and fifty five students fulfilled measurements for alexithymia, affect intensity and affect frequency. Results showed that the factor "Difficulty identifying feelings" is related to higher positive and negative affect intensity, as well as to negative affect frequency. Men were also more sensitive to positive affect intensity and frequency if they scored higher on alexithymia. They experienced less often positive affect, but the intensity of their affect was more intense. Conversely, alexithymia did not influence women's affect intensity or affect frequency. Thus, alexithymia factors are associated with specific patterns of affect intensity and frequency, highlighting an overall deficit in the processing of emotions with contrasting patterns regarding gender.

Main and Interactive Effects of Distress Tolerance and Negative Affect Intensity in Relation to PTSD Symptoms among Trauma-Exposed Adults

The present investigation evaluated the main and interactive effects of distress tolerance and negative affect intensity in relation to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity and symptom cluster severity. Participants were 190 trauma-exposed adults (52.6 % women; Mage=25.3 years, SD=11.4) recruited from the community. Distress tolerance (i.e., perceived ability to withstand distressing emotional states) demonstrated significant incremental associations with global PTSD symptom severity as well as Re-Experiencing, Emotional Numbing, and Hyperarousal symptom cluster severity. Negative affect intensity (i.e., perceived intensity of negative emotional responses) demonstrated significant incremental associations with each of the PTSD symptom outcomes. Moreover, the incremental interactive effect of distress tolerance and negative affect intensity was significantly associated with PTSD symptom severity as well as PTSD-Emotional Numbing symptom cluster severity. These incremental effects were evident after accounting for the variance explained by anxiety sensitivity (i.e., fear of anxiety-related sensations). Post hoc probing analyses supported the moderating role of negative affect intensity in the association between distress tolerance and PTSD symptom severity, such that low levels of distress tolerance, in the context of elevated levels of negative affect intensity, were associated with the greatest levels of PTSD symptoms.

The role of menstrual cycle phase and anxiety sensitivity in catastrophic misinterpretation of physical symptoms during a CO(2) challenge

The current study examined the interactive effects of anxiety sensitivity (AS; fear of anxiety and anxiety-related sensations) and menstrual cycle phase (premenstrual phase vs. follicular phase) on panic-relevant responding (i.e., cognitive and physical panic symptoms, subjective anxiety, and skin conductance level). Women completed a baseline session and underwent a 3-min 10 % CO(2)-enriched air biological challenge paradigm during her premenstrual and follicular menstrual cycle phases. Participants were 55 women with no current or past history of panic disorder recruited from the general community (M (age) = 26.18, SD = 8.9) who completed the biological challenge during both the premenstrual and follicular cycle phases. Results revealed that women higher on AS demonstrated increased cognitive panic symptoms in response to the challenge during the premenstrual phase as compared to the follicular phase, and as compared to women lower on AS assessed in either cycle phase. However, the interaction of AS and menstrual cycle phase did not significantly predict physical panic attack symptoms, subjective ratings of anxiety, or skin conductance level in response to the challenge. Results are discussed in the context of premenstrual exacerbations of cognitive, as opposed to physical, panic attack symptoms for high AS women, and the clinical implications of these findings.

Affect intensity and negative mood regulation (NMR) expectancies: a preliminary Indian study

Individuals differ in the intensity with which they typically experience affect as well as in their beliefs regarding their ability to alleviate negative mood states. These variables have been implicated in a range of clinical problems. Most studies utilize a single index of affect intensity. The differential correlates of positive and negative affect intensity, their association with negative mood regulation expectancy and their role as predictors of psychological outcomes have been insufficiently explored. This study aimed at exploring the relationship of affect intensity variables with negative mood regulation (NMR) expectancy, their association with age and gender and examining the role of affect intensity and NMR expectancy as predictors of stress and well being in a community sample of Indian adults. The sample consisted of 206 participants aged between 20 and 60 years. Higher age was associated with higher NMR expectancy but lower positive affect intensity. Positive and negative affect intensity showed differential patterns of association with NMR expectancy. Higher negative affect intensity was associated with lower NMR expectancy whereas higher positive affect intensity was associated with higher NMR expectancy. Affect intensity and NMR expectancy variables jointly predicted 30-39% of variance in perceived stress and well being. Implications for further research are discussed.

Biological sex and panic-relevant anxious reactivity to abrupt increases in bodily arousal as a function of biological challenge intensity

An emerging pattern of results from panic-relevant biological challenge studies suggests women respond with greater subjective anxiety than men, but only to relatively abrupt and intense challenge procedures. The current investigation examined the relation between biological sex and self-reported anxious reactivity following biological challenges of varying durations and intensity. Participants were 285 (152 females; M(age) = 21.38; SD = 5.92) nonclinical adults who completed one of three protocols: a 3-min voluntary hyperventilation challenge (VH), a 5-min 10% carbon dioxide-enriched air (CO(2)) challenge, or a 25-s 20% CO(2) challenge. As predicted, results indicated that the 20% CO(2) challenge elicited greater self-reported anxiety than the VH and 10% CO(2) challenges. Moreover, women endorsed greater anxious reactivity than men, but only following the 20% CO(2) challenge. Results are discussed in terms of processes likely to account for sex differences in anxious reactivity following relatively abrupt and intense biological challenges.

Sex differences in panic-relevant responding to a 10% carbon dioxide-enriched air biological challenge

The current study examined sex differences in psychological (i.e., self-reported anxiety, panic symptoms, and avoidance) and physiological (i.e., heart rate and skin conductance level) response to, and recovery from, a laboratory biological challenge. Participants were a community-recruited sample of 128 adults (63.3% women; M(age)=23.2 years, SD=8.9) who underwent a 4-min 10% CO(2)-enriched air biological challenge. As predicted, women reported more severe physical panic symptoms and avoidance (i.e., less willingness to participate in another challenge) and demonstrated increased heart rate as compared to men above and beyond the variance accounted for by other theoretically relevant variables (recent panic attack history, neuroticism, and anxiety sensitivity). Additionally, women demonstrated a faster rate of recovery with respect to heart rate compared to men. These results are in line with literature documenting sex-specific differences in panic psychopathology, and results are discussed in the context of possible mechanisms underlying sex differences in panic vulnerability.

Distress tolerance moderates the relationship between negative affect intensity with borderline personality disorder levels

A number of studies have suggested that negative emotionality and negative affect intensity play key roles in the development and maintenance of borderline personality disorder (BPD). However, more recent research indicates that one's response to affective discomfort may be an even more important variable in the pathogenesis of BPD than either negative emotionality or negative affect intensity per se. As such, the current study aimed to empirically test the moderating role of 2 well-validated laboratory measures of the ability to tolerate psychological distress (distress tolerance) in the relationship of negative emotionality and negative affect intensity with BPD levels. Results provide laboratory-based evidence for a moderating effect of distress tolerance on the relationship of negative emotionality and negative affect intensity with levels of BPD. Specifically, the 2 former variables were related to levels of BPD among those with low distress tolerance. The current results add support to existing developmental frameworks of BPD and suggest the importance of modifying one's response to affective distress along with levels of negative emotionality in treatment settings.

An examination of the relation between traumatic event exposure and panic-relevant biological challenge responding among adolescents

The current study uniquely extended research that has linked traumatic event exposure to panic-spectrum problems among adolescents. It was hypothesized that among 127 adolescents (age range: 10 to 17 years; M = 14.63, SD = 2.24), those who endorsed a history of traumatic event exposure would evidence significantly greater anxious and fearful reactivity to a well-established 3-min voluntary hyperventilation procedure compared to nonexposed individuals. Results were consistent with hypotheses, suggesting traumatic event exposure is associated with anxious and fearful reactivity to abrupt increases in bodily arousal among adolescents. Moreover, consistent with hypotheses, anxiety sensitivity significantly mediated the relations between traumatic event exposure and both self-reported panic symptoms and panic symptoms elicited by the challenge. Future prospective research is now needed to better understand temporal relations between traumatic event exposure and indices of panic and related vulnerability.

Phenomenon of declining anxiety sensitivity scores: a controlled investigation

BACKGROUND

Repeated administration of anxiety sensitivity measures can often produce declining scores, even in ostensible control groups, which is a significant concern for researchers. The reasons for these changes are as yet unknown, but could be because of regression to the mean in samples selected on extreme scores, exposure to general information about anxiety contained in psychiatric interviews, or mere exposure to anxiety sensitivity information.

METHODS

This study sought to experimentally evaluate these potential explanations using a comprehensive measure of anxiety sensitivity and its subcomponents, a non-anxiety sensitivity measure (self-esteem), and participants representing the full spectrum of anxiety sensitivity.

RESULTS

Results indicated significant decreases in anxiety sensitivity scores (but not self-esteem scores) that could not be accounted for by regression to the mean or exposure to information about anxiety in general.

CONCLUSIONS

Several potential explanations for these findings are reviewed and implications for research study designs are discussed.

Incremental associations between facets of anxiety sensitivity and posttraumatic stress and panic symptoms among trauma-exposed adults

The present investigation examined incremental associations between anxiety sensitivity (AS) subfactors (e.g. physical, psychological, and social concerns) and posttraumatic stress and panic symptoms among trauma-exposed adults. These effects were examined above and beyond other theoretically relevant factors, including negative affectivity and number of types of trauma exposures. The 239 participants were selected from a university- and community-based sample (129 women; mean age = 23.0 years; SD = 9.6, range = 18-65), all of whom endorsed exposure to traumatic life events. The AS psychological concerns and AS physical concerns lower order factors evidenced distinct associations with posttraumatic stress symptoms and panic-relevant symptoms, respectively. Specifically, the AS psychological concerns facet was significantly incrementally predictive of posttraumatic stress-relevant avoidance symptoms. The AS physical concerns facet was significantly incrementally predictive of panic-relevant symptoms, including anxious arousal, body vigilance, and perceived control over anxiety-related events. Results are discussed in the context of the relevant theoretical literature pertaining to shared vulnerability and comorbidity between posttraumatic stress and panic.

Social anxiety symptoms uniquely predict fear responding to 35% CO(2) challenge

The vast majority of biological challenge studies have focused on panic disorder though there is a small literature suggesting that patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD) show comparable responding. The SAD literature is potentially confounded, however, by the fact that many patients with SAD experience panic attacks. These patients also show elevated negative affect and anxiety sensitivity, factors that are also associated with increased fear responding to challenge. By controlling for these factors, the present report was able to evaluate whether social anxiety symptoms were uniquely associated with fearful responding to a 35% CO(2) challenge. A large nonclinical sample of young adults (N=120) screened for a history of panic attacks completed a 35% CO(2) challenge. Those high (versus low) in social anxiety showed approximately 2.5 times greater risk for experiencing substantial increases in anxiety in response to the challenge. This significant association was maintained after controlling for anxiety sensitivity and general negative affect. These data provide novel evidence suggesting that social anxiety symptoms are uniquely associated with anxious responding to 35% CO(2) challenge and this sensitivity appears to precede the development of panic attacks.

Borderline personality disorder and emotional responding: A review of the research literature

Although problems with emotional functioning are considered central to borderline personality disorder (BPD), it is only recently that studies have begun utilizing laboratory biobehavioral measures (including neuroimaging and psychophysiological measures) to examine emotional responding in BPD. The application of basic science methodologies used in a systematic program of research to investigate clinically relevant phenomena, often called translational research, holds much promise in advancing the assessment and treatment of BPD. In this paper, we begin with an overview of the research on self-reported emotional responding in BPD. Next, we outline the advantages that translational research has over traditional self-report methodology in furthering an understanding of emotional responding in BPD, and review the extant laboratory studies of emotional responding in BPD. Finally, problems commonly encountered when conducting translational research on emotion in BPD are outlined, and solutions to these problems are offered.

Delineating components of emotion and its dysregulation in anxiety and mood psychopathology

Two studies sought to elucidate the components of emotion and its dysregulation and examine their role in both the overlap and distinctness of the symptoms of 3 highly comorbid anxiety and mood disorders (i.e., generalized anxiety disorder, major depression, and social anxiety disorder). In Study 1, exploratory factor analyses demonstrated that 4 factors--heightened intensity of emotions, poor understanding of emotions, negative reactivity to emotions, and maladaptive management of emotions--best reflected the structure of 4 commonly used measures of emotion function and dysregulation. In Study 2, a separate sample provided support for this 4-factor model of emotion dysregulation. Poor understanding, negative reactivity, and maladaptive management were found to relate to a latent factor of emotion dysregulation. In contrast, heightened intensity of emotions was better characterized separately, suggesting it may relate more strongly to dispositional emotion generation or emotionality. Finally, the 4 components demonstrated both common and specific relationships to self-reported symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder, major depression, and social anxiety disorder.

Emotional-vulnerability and mindfulness: a preliminary test of associations among negative affectivity, anxiety sensitivity, and mindfulness skills

This study evaluated associations between general (negative affectivity) and specific (anxiety sensitivity) factors that may relate to the mindfulness skill domains assessed by the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills. Participants were 154 young adults (88 females; M(age) = 22.4 years, SD = 7.9) recruited from the community. Partially consistent with predictions, higher levels of negative affectivity were significantly associated with lower levels of Awareness, Acceptance, and Describe mindfulness skills, and higher levels of anxiety sensitivity were significantly associated with lower levels of Awareness and Acceptance mindfulness skills. Additionally, negative affectivity and anxiety sensitivity each demonstrated unique relations to participants' ability to experience the present state without evaluating or judging its content (Accept factor), after accounting for their shared variance, but only anxiety sensitivity demonstrated a unique association to the Act with Awareness factor independent of variance explained by negative affectivity. Findings are discussed in relation to theory and research on mindfulness processes.

The role of negative affect intensity and the fear of emotions in posttraumatic stress symptom severity among victims of childhood interpersonal violence

Heightened negative affect (NA) intensity and the tendency to negatively evaluate emotions may be associated with the development and maintenance of posttraumatic stress symptoms. However, the specific role of these vulnerabilities has yet to be explored. Thus, this study was conducted to examine the influence of NA intensity and the fear of emotions in posttraumatic symptom severity among 102 childhood interpersonal violence victims. Fear of emotions significantly predicted posttraumatic symptom severity above and beyond NA intensity and NA. Findings suggest that posttraumatic outcomes may not be influenced by an underlying vulnerability of heightened NA intensity, but instead, are affected by the extent to which emotional responses are negatively evaluated. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for interventions and future research on posttraumatic responding.

Pubertal status and emotional reactivity to a voluntary hyperventilation challenge predicting panic symptoms and somatic complaints: a laboratory-based multi-informant test

The main and interactive effects of pubertal status and emotional reactivity to bodily sensations elicited by a voluntary hyperventilation challenge were examined in relation to panic symptoms and self- and parent-reported somatic complaints among 123 (56 females) adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17 years (M(age) = 15.05; SD = 1.50). As expected, after controlling for baseline anxiety, age, and gender, there was a significant interaction between pubertal status and challenge response in predicting the outcome variables. Specifically, adolescents reporting more advanced pubertal status and greater reactivity to the challenge evidenced greater levels of panic symptoms and somatic complaints, whereas pubertal status had relatively less of an effect on these variables among adolescents who did not respond as fearfully to the challenge. Results are discussed in terms of extant theory and research on anxiety vulnerability among adolescents.