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Zoladz PR, Cordes CN, Weiser JN, Reneau KE, Boaz KM, Helwig SJ, Virden EM, Thebeault CK, Pfister CL, Getnet BA, Niese TD, Parker SL, Stanek ML, Long KE, Norrholm SD, Rorabaugh BR. Pre-Learning Stress That Is Temporally Removed from Acquisition Impairs Fear Learning. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:775. [PMID: 37372060 DOI: 10.3390/biology12060775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Few studies have examined the time-dependent effects of stress on fear learning. Previously, we found that stress immediately before fear conditioning enhanced fear learning. Here, we aimed to extend these findings by assessing the effects of stress 30 min prior to fear conditioning on fear learning and fear generalization. Two hundred and twenty-one healthy adults underwent stress (socially evaluated cold pressor test) or a control manipulation 30 min before completing differential fear conditioning in a fear-potentiated startle paradigm. One visual stimulus (CS+), but not another (CS-), was associated with an aversive airblast to the throat (US) during acquisition. The next day, participants were tested for their fear responses to the CS+, CS-, and several generalization stimuli. Stress impaired the acquisition of fear on Day 1 but had no significant impact on fear generalization. The stress-induced impairment of fear learning was particularly evident in participants who exhibited a robust cortisol response to the stressor. These findings are consistent with the notion that stress administered 30 min before learning impairs memory formation via corticosteroid-related mechanisms and may help us understand how fear memories are altered in stress-related psychological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip R Zoladz
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Chloe N Cordes
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Jordan N Weiser
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Kassidy E Reneau
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Kayla M Boaz
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Sara J Helwig
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Emma M Virden
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Caitlin K Thebeault
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Cassidy L Pfister
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Bruktawit A Getnet
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Taylor D Niese
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Sydney L Parker
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Mercedes L Stanek
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Kristen E Long
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Boyd R Rorabaugh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25755, USA
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Espinosa L, Bonsall MB, Becker N, Holmes EA, Olsson A. Pavlovian threat conditioning can generate intrusive memories that persist over time. Behav Res Ther 2022; 157:104161. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2022.104161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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The Operationalisation of Sex and Gender in Quantitative Health-Related Research: A Scoping Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19127493. [PMID: 35742742 PMCID: PMC9224188 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19127493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
Current trends in quantitative health research have highlighted the inadequacy of the usual operationalisation of sex and gender, resulting in a growing demand for more nuanced options. This scoping review provides an overview of recent instruments for the operationalisation of sex and gender in health-related research beyond a concept of mutually exclusive binary categories as male or masculine vs. female or feminine. Our search in three databases (Medline, Scopus and Web of Science) returned 9935 matches, of which 170 were included. From these, we identified 77 different instruments. The number and variety of instruments measuring sex and/or gender in quantitative health-related research increased over time. Most of these instruments were developed with a US-American student population. The majority of instruments focused on the assessment of gender based on a binary understanding, while sex or combinations of sex and gender were less frequently measured. Different populations may require the application of different instruments, and various research questions may ask for different dimensions of sex and gender to be studied. Despite the clear interest in the development of novel sex and/or gender instruments, future research needs to focus on new ways of operationalisation that account for their variability and multiple dimensions.
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Mihailova S, Jobson L. Cross-cultural exploration of the characteristics, content and themes of intrusive autobiographical memories recalled during depression. Memory 2020; 28:1-11. [PMID: 32422070 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2020.1767143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The recall of intrusive memories is highly prevalent during depression. While past research has examined memory themes and characteristics (e.g., frequency), possible cultural differences in these variables have not been investigated. Furthermore, cross-cultural research has documented content differences in voluntary autobiographical remembering, but such content analyses have not been conducted in regard to intrusive memories. This study, therefore, investigated the characteristics, content and themes of intrusive memories using a 2 (group: European Australian, East Asian) × 2 (depression: depressed, control) cross-sectional design. European Australian (n = 46) and East Asian (n = 45) participants living in Australia reported two memories in real-time using an online memory diary and rated the characteristics of their memories. East Asian participants reported more frequent and distressing memories, compared to European Australians, while the European Australian group reported more specific memories than the East Asian group. Most of the characteristics, themes and content variables, however, did not differ between cultural groups. Additionally, depressed participants, regardless of cultural group, reported more frequent, distressing and numbing memories, compared to healthy controls. These findings suggest that while depressive symptomatology impacts the experience of intrusive memories, memory content and characteristics are largely similar across the two cultural groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella Mihailova
- School of Psychological Sciences and Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Laura Jobson
- School of Psychological Sciences and Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Staugaard SR, Berntsen D. Gender differences in the experienced emotional intensity of experimentally induced memories of negative scenes. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2020; 85:1732-1747. [PMID: 32277252 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-020-01334-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
It is well documented that women have an increased risk of emotional disorders, such as anxiety and depression. Such disorders are typically characterized by intrusive memories and rumination of past events, but findings are mixed as to whether women have enhanced access to memories of emotional events. Some studies have found that women, compared with men, report more frequent and more intense memories of emotionally stressful events, whereas other studies have failed to replicate this effect. These conflicting findings may reflect the use of different memory sampling techniques (e.g., retrospective vs. experimental data) and limited control for factors associated with both gender and emotional memory. The purpose of the present study was to investigate gender differences in memory for emotionally negative events, using three different sampling methods, while at the same time controlling for parameters that might co-vary with gender. Consistent with some previous studies, we found that women and men did not differ in their frequencies of emotionally negative involuntary memories. However, women rated their memories as more intense and arousing than men did, and women also reported higher increases in state anxiety after retrieval. Female gender accounted for unique variance in the emotional intensity and subjective arousal associated with negative memories, when controlling for other theoretically derived variables. The findings provide evidence that female gender is associated with a stronger emotional response to memories of negative events, but not that women remember such events more frequently than men do.
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Affiliation(s)
- Søren Risløv Staugaard
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Center on Autobiographical Memory Research, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 9, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Dorthe Berntsen
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Center on Autobiographical Memory Research, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 9, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
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Mihailova S, Jobson L. The impact of depression and culture on responses to intrusive autobiographical memories: Cognitive appraisals, cognitive avoidance, and brooding rumination. BRITISH JOURNAL OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 59:66-79. [PMID: 31364774 DOI: 10.1111/bjc.12232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Those with depression ascribe more negative appraisals to intrusive autobiographical memories and use maladaptive strategies to regulate intrusive memory distress. However, it is unknown whether these patterns extend to East Asian samples. This study investigated the influence of culture and depression on intrusive remembering. DESIGN The study used a 2 (group: European Australian, East Asian) × 2 (depression: depressed, control) cross-sectional design, with an online intrusive memory diary. METHODS European Australian (n = 46) and East Asian (n = 45) participants living in Australia, with and without depression, reported two intrusive memories in real-time and completed self-report measures indexing their appraisals of the memories, and their use of cognitive avoidance and brooding rumination in response to the memories. RESULTS East Asian participants reported significantly greater negative, control, and responsibility appraisals than European Australian participants. Regardless of cultural group, depressed participants endorsed greater maladaptive memory appraisals and brooding compared to controls. Additionally, among East Asian participants, those with depression cognitively avoided memories significantly more than controls. When comparing the two depressed groups, East Asians reported significantly greater brooding and avoidance in response to intrusive memories than Australians. CONCLUSIONS The findings suggest that depression may be associated with some similar maladaptive responses to intrusive autobiographical memories across cultural groups. Clinical interventions targeting unhelpful responses may, therefore, be beneficial for those with depression, regardless of cultural background. PRACTITIONER POINTS Across both European Australian and East Asian cultures, depressed participants endorsed higher maladaptive intrusive memory appraisals and brooded more in response to memories. Clinical interventions targeting appraisals and emotion regulation in response to intrusive memories may be beneficial for those with depression across both cultural groups. Language and acculturation may have impacted findings, as measures were administered in English and in Australia. Replication using a cross-country design and larger sample would be beneficial to confirm findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella Mihailova
- School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Laura Jobson
- School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Rattel JA, Wegerer M, Miedl SF, Blechert J, Grünberger LM, Craske MG, Wilhelm FH. Peritraumatic unconditioned and conditioned responding explains sex differences in intrusions after analogue trauma. Behav Res Ther 2019; 116:19-29. [PMID: 30769151 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2019.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Higher prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in women than men may be explained by sex differences in fear learning processes. Initial evidence points to elevated unconditioned and conditioned fear responding as well as to elevated state anxiety in women as potential peritraumatic mechanisms. Using the "conditioned-intrusion-paradigm", which combines differential fear conditioning with the trauma-film paradigm, neutral sounds were presented as predictors of the occurrence (CS+) or non-occurrence (CS-) of highly aversive films. Intrusions were elicited by these sounds in the laboratory after conditioning and naturalistic intrusions were assessed in daily-life on subsequent days. Compared to men (n = 62), women (n = 60) reported more intrusions and associated distress following analogue trauma. Sex differences in intrusive symptoms were mediated by a) higher unconditioned trauma responding, b) slowed extinction of differential CS valence ratings, and c) elevated state anxiety increase across conditioning in women. Secondary analyses revealed that state anxiety was the strongest mediator, followed by slowed extinction learning. Mediation models were unrelated to sex differences in trait anxiety or depressive symptoms. Thus, associative (extinction learning) and non-associative (state anxiety, trauma responding) mechanisms contribute to sex differences in intrusive symptoms after analogue trauma and might add to the heightened vulnerability to PTSD in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julina A Rattel
- Division of Clinical Psychology, Psychotherapy, and Health Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Melanie Wegerer
- Division of Clinical Psychology, Psychotherapy, and Health Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Stephan F Miedl
- Division of Clinical Psychology, Psychotherapy, and Health Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Jens Blechert
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Austria; Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Lisa M Grünberger
- Division of Clinical Psychology, Psychotherapy, and Health Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Michelle G Craske
- Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Frank H Wilhelm
- Division of Clinical Psychology, Psychotherapy, and Health Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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Frequency of Intrusions and Appraisal of Related Distress After Analogue Trauma: A Comparative Ecological Momentary Assessment Methods Study. COGNITIVE THERAPY AND RESEARCH 2018; 43:174-184. [PMID: 30880849 PMCID: PMC6420051 DOI: 10.1007/s10608-018-9941-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Intrusive thoughts, images, and their appraisal remain difficult to study despite their clinical relevance. Clinical studies typically used time-based (frequency and distress per observation period), while analogue studies mainly used event-based (report upon occurrence) assessment. A comparison of intrusion frequency, distress appraisal, compliance, and reactivity across different assessments is mostly lacking, particularly with regard to analogue research. Here, intrusions were induced via aversive films and assessed by a smart phone application for 4 days. Three sampling modes were compared by randomizing participants to one of three conditions: either one, or five time-based daily prompts, or event-based assessment. At the end of the study, all participants reported intrusions once again in a retrospective summary assessment. Results indicate that intrusions and their distress decayed over a few days. The three assessments did not differ in intrusion frequency, distress appraisal, compliance (generally high), reactivity (generally low), or retrospective summary assessment. Across groups, the more aversive and arousing participants rated the film clips and the more reactivity to the electronic-diary assessment they reported, the more intrusive memories they had; assessment modes did not differ on this. Thus, no general differences were found between electronic-diary assessment modes for analogue intrusions, giving researchers flexibility for tailoring ecological momentary assessment to specific study aims.
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Marks EH, Franklin AR, Zoellner LA. Can't get it out of my mind: A systematic review of predictors of intrusive memories of distressing events. Psychol Bull 2018; 144:584-640. [PMID: 29553763 PMCID: PMC5938103 DOI: 10.1037/bul0000132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Intrusive memories, when persistent and distressing, are theorized to underlie a range of transdiagnostic psychological symptoms and associated impairment. However, little is known about factors predicting the development and persistence of intrusive memories. The aim of this systematic review is to evaluate the literature on pre-event, event-based, and post-event predictors of intrusive memories. A systematic review was conducted, searching for studies that examined intrusive, event-based memories. One hundred and six articles were identified from PsycInfo, PubMed, and Medline databases. Experimental and prospective studies with clinical (N = 14) and nonclinical (N = 92) samples were critically reviewed, provided the inclusion of an analogue stressor with nonclinical samples, and that intrusive memories frequency and/or distress were assessed as primary dependent variables. Pre-existing psychopathology and pre-event appraisal style appear to predict intrusive memories (small to medium effects), whereas trait dissociation did not predict intrusive memories. Of studies examining event-based predictors, higher data-driven processing appears to predict intrusive memories with generally large effects. Post-event negative appraisals consistently predicted intrusive memories (medium to large effects), and preliminary evidence suggests higher post-event conceptual processing predicting fewer intrusive memories. This review synthesizes findings regarding a broad range of pre-event, event-based, and post-event factors that may influence the development of intrusive memories. Methodological issues of current paradigms and the lack of emphasis on memory retrieval processes limit our understanding of what predicts intrusive memory persistence. These limitations are particularly important given that individuals typically seek treatment for distressing intrusive memories once a memory has been fully consolidated, where retrieval processes are of utmost importance. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Ripley AJ, Clapp JD, Beck JG. A prospective examination of risk factors in the development of intrusions following a trauma analog. Behav Res Ther 2017; 94:71-80. [PMID: 28505471 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Revised: 03/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Several factors have been linked to the severity of posttraumatic distress, although retrospective designs in much of the literature limit conclusions regarding the temporal relation between risk factors and corresponding symptoms. To address these concerns, the current project employed an analog trauma paradigm to assess the impact of background characteristics, stress response, and post-stressor affect regulation on subjective distress and intrusive memories experienced during the subsequent processing of emotional stimuli. University students (N = 184; 56% female, 42% White/Non-Hispanic) were shown graphic scenes of a televised suicide. Physiological activation was recorded during exposure with emotion ratings collected following the film. Participants then viewed a sadness- or humor-eliciting prime under instructions to inhibit or naturally express emotion. Intrusions experienced during the priming film and residual distress at study's conclusion were rated prior to debriefing. Hierarchical regression identified reductions in emotional valence as a robust predictor of intrusions and distress. Sympathetic activation and exposure to the sadness prime were associated with intrusion frequency, whereas attenuated parasympathetic response predicted intrusion intensity. Expressive inhibition demonstrated a unique association with residual distress. Results suggest peritraumatic processes and post-exposure factors may hold more prominent relations with immediate trauma-related distress as compared to pre-existing survivor characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Ripley
- Department of Psychology, University of Wyoming, Dept. 3415, 1000 E University Ave, Laramie, WY 82071, United States.
| | - Joshua D Clapp
- Department of Psychology, University of Wyoming, Dept. 3415, 1000 E University Ave, Laramie, WY 82071, United States.
| | - J Gayle Beck
- Department of Psychology, The University of Memphis, 400 Innovation Dr., Memphis, TN 38152, United States.
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James EL, Lau-Zhu A, Clark IA, Visser RM, Hagenaars MA, Holmes EA. The trauma film paradigm as an experimental psychopathology model of psychological trauma: intrusive memories and beyond. Clin Psychol Rev 2016; 47:106-42. [PMID: 27289421 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2016.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ella L James
- Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, 15 Chaucer Road, Cambridge CB2 7EF, United Kingdom; University of Oxford Department of Psychiatry, Warneford Hospital, Oxford OX3 7NG, United Kingdom
| | - Alex Lau-Zhu
- Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, 15 Chaucer Road, Cambridge CB2 7EF, United Kingdom
| | - Ian A Clark
- University of Oxford Department of Psychiatry, Warneford Hospital, Oxford OX3 7NG, United Kingdom
| | - Renée M Visser
- Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, 15 Chaucer Road, Cambridge CB2 7EF, United Kingdom
| | - Muriel A Hagenaars
- Utrecht University, Department of Clinical Psychology, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Emily A Holmes
- Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, 15 Chaucer Road, Cambridge CB2 7EF, United Kingdom; Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden.
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