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Ye E, Lin F, Fu C, Zhou X, Lin Q, Pan H, Chen Z. Enhancing Pd Catalytic Activity by Amine Group Modification for Efficient Direct Synthesis of H 2O 2. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:27490-27503. [PMID: 38751374 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c05221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
A great deal of research has been carried out on the design of Pd-based catalysts in the direct synthesis of H2O2, mainly for the purpose of improving the H2O2 selectivity by weakening the activation energy on the Pd active site and thus inhibiting the dissociation of the O-O bonds in O2*, OOH*, and HOOH*. However, this often results in insufficient activation energy for the reaction between H2 and O2 on Pd, leading to difficulties in improving both the selectivity and productivity of H2O2 simultaneously. Based on this, this study reports an efficient catalyst composed of amine-functionalized SBA-15-supported Pd. The strong metal-support interaction not only makes the PdNPs highly dispersed with more Pd active sites but also improves the stability of the catalyst. The amine group modification increases the proportion of Pd0, further enhancing Pd activity and promoting the adsorption and conversion of H2 and O2 on Pd, thereby significantly increasing H2O2 productivity. Additionally, the density-functional theory simulation results showed that due to the hydrogen-bonding force between the amine group and H2O2, this particular anchoring effect would make the hydrogenation and decomposition of H2O2 effectively suppressed. Ultimately, both the selectivity and productivity of H2O2 are improved simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Entong Ye
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guizhou Key Laboratory of Green Chemical and Clean Energy Technology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China
| | - Fangmei Lin
- School of Foreign Languages & Literature, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Chengbin Fu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guizhou Key Laboratory of Green Chemical and Clean Energy Technology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China
| | - Xin Zhou
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guizhou Key Laboratory of Green Chemical and Clean Energy Technology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China
| | - Qian Lin
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guizhou Key Laboratory of Green Chemical and Clean Energy Technology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China
| | - Hongyan Pan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guizhou Key Laboratory of Green Chemical and Clean Energy Technology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China
| | - Zheng Chen
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guizhou Key Laboratory of Green Chemical and Clean Energy Technology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China
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2
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Freese T, Meijer JT, Brands MB, Alachouzos G, Stuart MCA, Tarozo R, Gerlach D, Smits J, Rudolf P, Reek JNH, Feringa BL. Iron oxide-promoted photochemical oxygen reduction to hydrogen peroxide (H 2O 2). EES CATALYSIS 2024; 2:262-275. [PMID: 38222062 PMCID: PMC10782808 DOI: 10.1039/d3ey00256j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a valuable green oxidant with a wide range of applications. Furthermore, it is recognized as a possible future energy carrier achieving safe operation, storage and transportation. The photochemical production of H2O2 serves as a promising alternative to the waste- and energy-intensive anthraquinone process. Following the 12 principles of Green Chemistry, we demonstrate a facile and general approach to sustainable catalyst development utilizing earth-abundant iron and biobased sources only. We developed several iron oxide (FeOx) nanoparticles (NPs) for successful photochemical oxygen reduction to H2O2 under visible light illumination (445 nm). Achieving a selectivity for H2O2 of >99%, the catalyst material could be recycled for up to four consecutive rounds. An apparent quantum yield (AQY) of 0.11% was achieved for the photochemical oxygen reduction to H2O2 with visible light (445 nm) at ambient temperatures and pressures (9.4-14.8 mmol g-1 L-1). Reaching productivities of H2O2 of at least 1.7 ± 0.3 mmol g-1 L-1 h-1, production of H2O2 was further possible via sunlight irradiation and in seawater. Finally, a detailed mechanism has been proposed on the basis of experimental investigation of the catalyst's properties and computational results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Freese
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 9747 AG Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Jelmer T Meijer
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 9747 AG Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Maria B Brands
- van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam Science Park 904 1098 XH Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Georgios Alachouzos
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 9747 AG Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Marc C A Stuart
- Electron Microscopy, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 7 9747AG Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Rafael Tarozo
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 9747 AG Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Dominic Gerlach
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 9747AG Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Joost Smits
- Shell Global Solutions International BV Grasweg 31 1031 HW Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Petra Rudolf
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 9747AG Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Joost N H Reek
- van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam Science Park 904 1098 XH Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Ben L Feringa
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 9747 AG Groningen The Netherlands
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Lewis RJ, Hutchings GJ. Selective Oxidation Using In Situ-Generated Hydrogen Peroxide. Acc Chem Res 2024; 57:106-119. [PMID: 38116936 PMCID: PMC10765371 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.3c00581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
ConspectusHydrogen peroxide (H2O2) for industrial applications is manufactured through an indirect process that relies on the sequential reduction and reoxidation of quinone carriers. While highly effective, production is typically centralized and entails numerous energy-intensive concentration steps. Furthermore, the overhydrogenation of the quinone necessitates periodic replacement, leading to incomplete atom efficiency. These factors, in addition to the presence of propriety stabilizing agents and concerns associated with their separation from product streams, have driven interest in alternative technologies for chemical upgrading. The decoupling of oxidative transformations from commercially synthesized H2O2 may offer significant economic savings and a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions for several industrially relevant processes. Indeed, the production and utilization of the oxidant in situ, from the elements, would represent a positive step toward a more sustainable chemical synthesis sector, offering the potential for total atom efficiency, while avoiding the drawbacks associated with current industrial routes, which are inherently linked to commercial H2O2 production. Such interest is perhaps now more pertinent than ever given the rapidly improving viability of green hydrogen production.The application of in situ-generated H2O2 has been a long-standing goal in feedstock valorization, with perhaps the most significant interest placed on propylene epoxidation. Until very recently a viable in situ alternative to current industrial oxidative processes has been lacking, with prior approaches typically hindered by low rates of conversion or poor selectivity toward desired products, often resulting from competitive hydrogenation reactions. Based on over 20 years of research, which has led to the development of catalysts for the direct synthesis of H2O2 that offer high synthesis rates and >99% H2 utilization, we have recently turned our attention to a range of oxidative transformations where H2O2 is generated and utilized in situ. Indeed, we have recently demonstrated that it is possible to rival state-of-the-art industrial processes through in situ H2O2 synthesis, establishing the potential for significant process intensification and considerable decarbonization of the chemical synthesis sector.We have further established the potential of an in situ route to both bulk and fine chemical synthesis through a chemo-catalytic/enzymatic one-pot approach, where H2O2 is synthesized over heterogeneous surfaces and subsequently utilized by a class of unspecific peroxygenase enzymes for C-H bond functionalization. Strikingly, through careful control of the chemo-catalyst, it is possible to ensure that competitive, nonenzymatic pathways are inhibited while also avoiding the regiospecific and selectivity concerns associated with current energy-intensive industrial processes, with further cost savings associated with the operation of the chemo-enzymatic approach at near-ambient temperatures and pressures. Beyond traditional applications of chemo-catalysis, the efficacy of in situ-generated H2O2 (and associated oxygen-based radical species) for the remediation of environmental pollutants has also been a major interest of our laboratory, with such technology offering considerable improvements over conventional disinfection processes.We hope that this Account, which highlights the key contributions of our laboratory to the field over recent years, demonstrates the chemistries that may be unlocked and improved upon via in situ H2O2 synthesis and it inspires broader interest from the scientific community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J. Lewis
- Max Planck−Cardiff Centre on
the Fundamentals of Heterogeneous Catalysis FUNCAT, Cardiff Catalysis
Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff
University, Cardiff, CF24 4HQ, United Kingdom
| | - Graham J. Hutchings
- Max Planck−Cardiff Centre on
the Fundamentals of Heterogeneous Catalysis FUNCAT, Cardiff Catalysis
Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff
University, Cardiff, CF24 4HQ, United Kingdom
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Effect of structure of Pd@Fe core–shell cubes on the enhancement of H2 conversion in direct reaction of H2 and O2. J IND ENG CHEM 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2023.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
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Sandri F, De Boni F, Marelli M, Sedona F, Causin V, Centomo P, Zecca M. The role of acetonitrile in the direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide over palladium supported by ion-exchange resins. CATAL COMMUN 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2022.106585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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Improving Catalytic Activity towards the Direct Synthesis of H2O2 through Cu Incorporation into AuPd Catalysts. Catalysts 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/catal12111396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
With a focus on catalysts prepared by an excess-chloride wet impregnation procedure and supported on the zeolite ZSM-5(30), the introduction of low concentrations of tertiary base metals, in particular Cu, into supported AuPd nanoparticles can be observed to enhance catalytic activity towards the direct synthesis of H2O2. Indeed the optimal catalyst formulation (1%AuPd(0.975)Cu(0.025)/ZSM-5) is able to achieve rates of H2O2 synthesis (115 molH2O2kgcat−1h−1) approximately 1.7 times that of the bi-metallic analogue (69 molH2O2kgcat−1h−1) and rival that previously reported over comparable materials which use Pt as a dopant. Notably, the introduction of Cu at higher loadings results in an inhibition of performance. Detailed analysis by CO-DRFITS and XPS reveals that the improved performance observed over the optimal catalyst can be attributed to the electronic modification of the Pd species and the formation of domains of a mixed Pd2+/Pd0 oxidation state as well as structural changed within the nanoalloy.
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Jiang D, Shi Y, Zhou L, Ma J, Pan H, Lin Q. Promotional Effect of Nitrogen-doped and Pore Structure for the direct synthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide from Hydrogen and Oxygen by Pd/C Catalyst at Ambient Pressure. ARAB J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2022.104452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Lewis RJ, Koy M, Macino M, Das M, Carter JH, Morgan DJ, Davies TE, Ernst JB, Freakley SJ, Glorius F, Hutchings GJ. N-Heterocyclic Carbene Modified Palladium Catalysts for the Direct Synthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:15431-15436. [PMID: 35976628 PMCID: PMC9449981 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c04828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Heterogeneous palladium catalysts modified by N-heterocyclic
carbenes
(NHCs) are shown to be highly effective toward the direct synthesis
of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), in the absence
of the promoters which are typically required to enhance both activity
and selectivity. Catalytic evaluation in a batch regime demonstrated
that through careful selection of the N-substituent of the NHC it
is possible to greatly enhance catalytic performance when compared
to the unmodified analogue and reach concentrations of H2O2 rivaling that obtained by state-of-the-art catalysts.
The enhanced performance of the modified catalyst, which is retained
upon reuse, is attributed to the ability of the NHC to electronically
modify Pd speciation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Lewis
- Max Planck Cardiff Centre on the Fundamentals of Heterogeneous Catalysis, FUNCAT, Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF103AT, United Kingdom
| | - Maximilian Koy
- Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Corrensstraße 36, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Margherita Macino
- Max Planck Cardiff Centre on the Fundamentals of Heterogeneous Catalysis, FUNCAT, Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF103AT, United Kingdom
| | - Mowpriya Das
- Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Corrensstraße 36, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - James H Carter
- Max Planck Cardiff Centre on the Fundamentals of Heterogeneous Catalysis, FUNCAT, Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF103AT, United Kingdom
| | - David J Morgan
- Max Planck Cardiff Centre on the Fundamentals of Heterogeneous Catalysis, FUNCAT, Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF103AT, United Kingdom.,Harwell XPS, Research Complex at Harwell (RCaH), Didcot OX110FA, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas E Davies
- Max Planck Cardiff Centre on the Fundamentals of Heterogeneous Catalysis, FUNCAT, Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF103AT, United Kingdom
| | - Johannes B Ernst
- Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Corrensstraße 36, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Simon J Freakley
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA27AY, United Kingdom
| | - Frank Glorius
- Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Corrensstraße 36, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Graham J Hutchings
- Max Planck Cardiff Centre on the Fundamentals of Heterogeneous Catalysis, FUNCAT, Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF103AT, United Kingdom
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Silica Bifunctional Supports for the Direct Synthesis of H2O2: Optimization of Br/Acid Sites and Pd/Br Ratio. Catalysts 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/catal12070796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We have studied the direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide using a catalytic system consisting of palladium supported on silica bifunctionalized with sulfonic acid groups and bromide in the absence of acid and halide promoters in solution. Catalysts with several bromide substituents were employed in the catalyst synthesis. The prepared samples were characterized by TXRF, XPS, and hydrogen peroxide decomposition. Catalysts characterization indicated the presence of only palladium (II) species in all of the samples, with similar values for surface and bulk of Pd/Br atomic ratio. The catalysts were tested via direct synthesis, and all samples were able to produce hydrogen peroxide at 313 K and 5.0 MPa. The hydrogen peroxide yield and selectivity changed with the Pd/Br ratio. A decrease in the Pd/Br ratio increases the final hydrogen peroxide concentration, and the selectivity for H2O2 reaches a maximum at a Pd/Br ratio around 0.16 and then decreases. However, the maximum hydrogen peroxide concentration and selectivity occur at slightly different Pd/Br ratios, i.e., resp. 0.4 vs. 0.16.
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Hu F, Fu C, Zhao C, Liu P, Tian W, Chen B, Pan H, Lin Q. Effect of Shell Thickness on the Properties of Multi-Pd Cores-Hollow Carbon Shell Catalyst mPd@HCS. CATALYSIS SURVEYS FROM ASIA 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10563-022-09362-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Wu D, Han D, Zhou W, Streiff S, Khodakov AY, Ordomsky VV. Surface modification of metallic catalysts for the design of selective processes. CATALYSIS REVIEWS 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/01614940.2022.2079809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dan Wu
- UCCS–Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, ENSCL, Univ, Artois, France
- Eco-Efficient Products and Processes Laboratory (E2P2L), UMI 3464 CNRS-Solvay, Shanghai, Jiangsu, People’s Republic of China
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Dandan Han
- College of Science, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Wenjuan Zhou
- Eco-Efficient Products and Processes Laboratory (E2P2L), UMI 3464 CNRS-Solvay, Shanghai, Jiangsu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Stephane Streiff
- Eco-Efficient Products and Processes Laboratory (E2P2L), UMI 3464 CNRS-Solvay, Shanghai, Jiangsu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Andrei Y. Khodakov
- UCCS–Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, ENSCL, Univ, Artois, France
| | - Vitaly V. Ordomsky
- UCCS–Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, ENSCL, Univ, Artois, France
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Lewis RJ, Ntainjua EN, Morgan DJ, Davies TE, Carley AF, Freakley SJ, Hutchings GJ. Improving the performance of Pd based catalysts for the direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide via acid incorporation during catalyst synthesis. CATAL COMMUN 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2021.106358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Ricciardulli T, Adams JS, DeRidder M, van Bavel AP, Karim AM, Flaherty DW. H2O-assisted O2 reduction by H2 on Pt and PtAu bimetallic nanoparticles: Influences of composition and reactant coverages on kinetic regimes, rates, and selectivities. J Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2021.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Ricciardulli T, Gorthy S, Adams JS, Thompson C, Karim AM, Neurock M, Flaherty DW. Effect of Pd Coordination and Isolation on the Catalytic Reduction of O 2 to H 2O 2 over PdAu Bimetallic Nanoparticles. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:5445-5464. [PMID: 33818086 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c00539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide (H2 + O2 → H2O2) may enable low-cost H2O2 production and reduce environmental impacts of chemical oxidations. Here, we synthesize a series of Pd1Aux nanoparticles (where 0 ≤ x ≤ 220, ∼10 nm) and show that, in pure water solvent, H2O2 selectivity increases with the Au to Pd ratio and approaches 100% for Pd1Au220. Analysis of in situ XAS and ex situ FTIR of adsorbed 12CO and 13CO show that materials with Au to Pd ratios of ∼40 and greater expose only monomeric Pd species during catalysis and that the average distance between Pd monomers increases with further dilution. Ab initio quantum chemical simulations and experimental rate measurements indicate that both H2O2 and H2O form by reduction of a common OOH* intermediate by proton-electron transfer steps mediated by water molecules over Pd and Pd1Aux nanoparticles. Measured apparent activation enthalpies and calculated activation barriers for H2O2 and H2O formation both increase as Pd is diluted by Au, even beyond the complete loss of Pd-Pd coordination. These effects impact H2O formation more significantly, indicating preferential destabilization of transition states that cleave O-O bonds reflected by increasing H2O2 selectivities (19% on Pd; 95% on PdAu220) but with only a 3-fold reduction in H2O2 formation rates. The data imply that the transition states for H2O2 and H2O formation pathways differ in their coordination to the metal surface, and such differences in site requirements require that we consider second coordination shells during the design of bimetallic catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Ricciardulli
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Sahithi Gorthy
- Department of Chemical and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Jason S Adams
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Coogan Thompson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Ayman M Karim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Matthew Neurock
- Department of Chemical and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - David W Flaherty
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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