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Sutton NM, Gutiérrez-Guzmán BE, Dannenberg H, Ascoli GA. A Continuous Attractor Model with Realistic Neural and Synaptic Properties Quantitatively Reproduces Grid Cell Physiology. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6059. [PMID: 38892248 PMCID: PMC11173171 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25116059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 05/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Computational simulations with data-driven physiological detail can foster a deeper understanding of the neural mechanisms involved in cognition. Here, we utilize the wealth of cellular properties from Hippocampome.org to study neural mechanisms of spatial coding with a spiking continuous attractor network model of medial entorhinal cortex circuit activity. The primary goal is to investigate if adding such realistic constraints could produce firing patterns similar to those measured in real neurons. Biological characteristics included in the work are excitability, connectivity, and synaptic signaling of neuron types defined primarily by their axonal and dendritic morphologies. We investigate the spiking dynamics in specific neuron types and the synaptic activities between groups of neurons. Modeling the rodent hippocampal formation keeps the simulations to a computationally reasonable scale while also anchoring the parameters and results to experimental measurements. Our model generates grid cell activity that well matches the spacing, size, and firing rates of grid fields recorded in live behaving animals from both published datasets and new experiments performed for this study. Our simulations also recreate different scales of those properties, e.g., small and large, as found along the dorsoventral axis of the medial entorhinal cortex. Computational exploration of neuronal and synaptic model parameters reveals that a broad range of neural properties produce grid fields in the simulation. These results demonstrate that the continuous attractor network model of grid cells is compatible with a spiking neural network implementation sourcing data-driven biophysical and anatomical parameters from Hippocampome.org. The software (version 1.0) is released as open source to enable broad community reuse and encourage novel applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nate M. Sutton
- Bioengineering Department, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA; (N.M.S.); (B.E.G.-G.); (H.D.)
| | - Blanca E. Gutiérrez-Guzmán
- Bioengineering Department, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA; (N.M.S.); (B.E.G.-G.); (H.D.)
| | - Holger Dannenberg
- Bioengineering Department, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA; (N.M.S.); (B.E.G.-G.); (H.D.)
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA
| | - Giorgio A. Ascoli
- Bioengineering Department, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA; (N.M.S.); (B.E.G.-G.); (H.D.)
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA
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2
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Sutton N, Gutiérrez-Guzmán B, Dannenberg H, Ascoli GA. A Continuous Attractor Model with Realistic Neural and Synaptic Properties Quantitatively Reproduces Grid Cell Physiology. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.29.591748. [PMID: 38746202 PMCID: PMC11092518 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.29.591748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Computational simulations with data-driven physiological detail can foster a deeper understanding of the neural mechanisms involved in cognition. Here, we utilize the wealth of cellular properties from Hippocampome.org to study neural mechanisms of spatial coding with a spiking continuous attractor network model of medial entorhinal cortex circuit activity. The primary goal was to investigate if adding such realistic constraints could produce firing patterns similar to those measured in real neurons. Biological characteristics included in the work are excitability, connectivity, and synaptic signaling of neuron types defined primarily by their axonal and dendritic morphologies. We investigate the spiking dynamics in specific neuron types and the synaptic activities between groups of neurons. Modeling the rodent hippocampal formation keeps the simulations to a computationally reasonable scale while also anchoring the parameters and results to experimental measurements. Our model generates grid cell activity that well matches the spacing, size, and firing rates of grid fields recorded in live behaving animals from both published datasets and new experiments performed for this study. Our simulations also recreate different scales of those properties, e.g., small and large, as found along the dorsoventral axis of the medial entorhinal cortex. Computational exploration of neuronal and synaptic model parameters reveals that a broad range of neural properties produce grid fields in the simulation. These results demonstrate that the continuous attractor network model of grid cells is compatible with a spiking neural network implementation sourcing data-driven biophysical and anatomical parameters from Hippocampome.org. The software is released as open source to enable broad community reuse and encourage novel applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nate Sutton
- Bioengineering Department, at George Mason University
| | | | - Holger Dannenberg
- Bioengineering Department, at George Mason University
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience at George Mason University
| | - Giorgio A. Ascoli
- Bioengineering Department, at George Mason University
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience at George Mason University
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3
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Kobro-Flatmoen A, Witter MP. Neuronal chemo-architecture of the entorhinal cortex: A comparative review. Eur J Neurosci 2019; 50:3627-3662. [PMID: 31293027 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The identification of neuronal markers, that is, molecules selectively present in subsets of neurons, contributes to our understanding of brain areas and the networks within them. Specifically, recognizing the distribution of different neuronal markers facilitates the identification of borders between functionally distinct brain areas. Detailed knowledge about the localization and physiological significance of neuronal markers may also provide clues to generate new hypotheses concerning aspects of normal and abnormal brain functioning. Here, we provide a comprehensive review on the distribution within the entorhinal cortex of neuronal markers and the morphology of the neurons they reveal. Emphasis is on the comparative distribution of several markers, with a focus on, but not restricted to rodent, monkey and human data, allowing to infer connectional features, across species, associated with these markers, based on what is revealed by mainly rodent data. The overall conclusion from this review is that there is an emerging pattern in the distribution of neuronal markers in the entorhinal cortex when aligning data along a comparable coordinate system in various species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asgeir Kobro-Flatmoen
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, Centre for Neural Computation, Egil and Pauline Braathen and Fred Kavli Centre for Cortical Microcircuits, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Menno P Witter
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, Centre for Neural Computation, Egil and Pauline Braathen and Fred Kavli Centre for Cortical Microcircuits, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
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4
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Mata A, Urrea L, Vilches S, Llorens F, Thüne K, Espinosa JC, Andréoletti O, Sevillano AM, Torres JM, Requena JR, Zerr I, Ferrer I, Gavín R, Del Río JA. Reelin Expression in Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease and Experimental Models of Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:6412-6425. [PMID: 27726110 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0177-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Reelin is an extracellular glycoprotein involved in key cellular processes in developing and adult nervous system, including regulation of neuronal migration, synapse formation, and plasticity. Most of these roles are mediated by the intracellular phosphorylation of disabled-1 (Dab1), an intracellular adaptor molecule, in turn mediated by binding Reelin to its receptors. Altered expression and glycosylation patterns of Reelin in cerebrospinal and cortical extracts have been reported in Alzheimer's disease. However, putative changes in Reelin are not described in natural prionopathies or experimental models of prion infection or toxicity. With this is mind, in the present study, we determined that Reelin protein and mRNA levels increased in CJD human samples and in mouse models of human prion disease in contrast to murine models of prion infection. However, changes in Reelin expression appeared only at late terminal stages of the disease, which prevent their use as an efficient diagnostic biomarker. In addition, increased Reelin in CJD and in in vitro models does not correlate with Dab1 phosphorylation, indicating failure in its intracellular signaling. Overall, these findings widen our understanding of the putative changes of Reelin in neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Mata
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laura Urrea
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Silvia Vilches
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Franc Llorens
- Department of Neurology, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases - DZNE, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, Bonn, Germany
| | - Katrin Thüne
- Department of Neurology, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases - DZNE, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, Bonn, Germany
| | - Juan-Carlos Espinosa
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), Madrid, Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Olivier Andréoletti
- UMR INRA ENVT 1225, Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 31076, Toulouse, France
| | - Alejandro M Sevillano
- CIMUS Biomedical Research Institute, University of Santiago de Compostela-IDIS, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- Department of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Juan María Torres
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), Madrid, Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Jesús Rodríguez Requena
- CIMUS Biomedical Research Institute, University of Santiago de Compostela-IDIS, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- Department of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Inga Zerr
- Department of Neurology, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases - DZNE, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, Bonn, Germany
| | - Isidro Ferrer
- Institut de Neuropatologia, IDIBELL-Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosalina Gavín
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Antonio Del Río
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain.
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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Cuchillo-Ibañez I, Balmaceda V, Mata-Balaguer T, Lopez-Font I, Sáez-Valero J. Reelin in Alzheimer’s Disease, Increased Levels but Impaired Signaling: When More is Less. J Alzheimers Dis 2016; 52:403-16. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-151193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Inmaculada Cuchillo-Ibañez
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Sant Joan d’Alacant, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Spain
| | - Valeria Balmaceda
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Sant Joan d’Alacant, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Spain
| | - Trinidad Mata-Balaguer
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Sant Joan d’Alacant, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Spain
| | - Inmaculada Lopez-Font
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Sant Joan d’Alacant, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Spain
| | - Javier Sáez-Valero
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Sant Joan d’Alacant, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Spain
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Folsom TD, Fatemi SH. The involvement of Reelin in neurodevelopmental disorders. Neuropharmacology 2013; 68:122-35. [PMID: 22981949 PMCID: PMC3632377 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Revised: 08/14/2012] [Accepted: 08/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Reelin is a glycoprotein that serves important roles both during development (regulation of neuronal migration and brain lamination) and in adulthood (maintenance of synaptic function). A number of neuropsychiatric disorders including autism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression, Alzheimer's disease and lissencephaly share a common feature of abnormal Reelin expression in the brain. Altered Reelin expression has been hypothesized to impair neuronal connectivity and synaptic plasticity, leading ultimately to the cognitive deficits present in these disorders. The mechanisms for abnormal Reelin expression in some of these disorders are currently unknown although possible explanations include early developmental insults, mutations, hypermethylation of the promoter for the Reelin gene (RELN), miRNA silencing of Reelin mRNA, FMRP underexpression and Reelin processing abnormalities. Increasing Reelin expression through pharmacological therapies may help ameliorate symptoms resulting from Reelin deficits. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Neurodevelopmental Disorders'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy D. Folsom
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Neuroscience Research, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware St SE, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - S. Hossein Fatemi
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Neuroscience Research, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware St SE, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware St SE, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware St SE, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Botella-López A, Cuchillo-Ibáñez I, Cotrufo T, Mok SS, Li QX, Barquero MS, Dierssen M, Soriano E, Sáez-Valero J. Beta-amyloid controls altered Reelin expression and processing in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2009; 37:682-91. [PMID: 20025970 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2009.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2009] [Revised: 11/09/2009] [Accepted: 12/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Reelin is a glycoprotein that modulates synaptic function and plasticity in the mature brain, thereby favouring memory formation. We recently reported altered cerebral Reelin expression in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here we demonstrate pronounced Reelin changes at protein and mRNA levels in the frontal cortex in adult Down's syndrome (DS), where the extra copy of chromosome 21 leads to overexpression of beta-amyloid. In cortical extracts of fetal DS samples we detected increased levels of the full-length Reelin and the 310-kDa fragment. Overexpression of mutant human amyloid precursor protein also led to an increase in levels of Reelin fragments in Tg2576 transgenic mice for human beta-amyloid. Finally, in vitro Abeta42 treatment of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells led to increased Reelin levels. An altered pattern of Reelin glycosylation was detected in extracts from the frontal cortex of AD patients and in Abeta42-treated SH-SY5Y cells, supporting the notion that beta-amyloid triggers altered Reelin processing. These results provide evidence that Reelin expression and processing is altered in several amyloid conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arancha Botella-López
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Sant Joan d'Alacant, E-03550, Spain
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Madhusudan A, Sidler C, Knuesel I. Accumulation of reelin-positive plaques is accompanied by a decline in basal forebrain projection neurons during normal aging. Eur J Neurosci 2009; 30:1064-76. [PMID: 19735296 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.06884.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Besides its critical role during neurodevelopment, the extracellular glycoprotein reelin is also a pivotal regulator of adult synaptic function and plasticity, and altered reelin-mediated signalling has been suggested to contribute to neuronal dysfunction associated with Alzheimer's disease. We have recently discovered, in aged rodents and non-human primates, a pronounced decline in reelin-positive interneurons and concomitant accumulation of reelin in extracellular amyloid-like deposits, both being associated with episodic-like memory impairments. Here, we report that these age-related neuropathological changes in hippocampus, entorhinal and piriform cortices of aged wild-type mice are accompanied by abnormal axonal varicosities and altered expression profiles of calcium-binding proteins in plaque-dense areas, as well as a significant reduction in the number of parvalbumin-positive gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic projection neurons in basal forebrain areas, including medial septum (MS), ventral and horizontal diagonal Band of Broca (VDB/HDB) and substantia innominata (SI), compared with young subjects. In addition, a significant reduction in the number of choline acetyltransferase-positive cholinergic projection neurons was evident in the HDB/SI area but not in the MS of aged compared with young wild-type mice. No reelin-deposits were found in these basal forebrain regions. Our findings suggest that the elevated reelin plaque load in the projection areas of afferent subcortical GABAergic and cholinergic neurons including hippocampus, entorhinal and piriform cortices affects the axonal integrity and survival of these neurons, potentially contributing to the cognitive impairments observed in aged wild-type mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amrita Madhusudan
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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9
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Abstract
The processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP) to Abeta is an important event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, but the physiological function of APP is not well understood. Our previous work has shown that APP processing and Abeta production are regulated by the extracellular matrix protein Reelin. In the present study, we examined whether Reelin interacts with APP, and the functional consequences of that interaction in vitro. Using coimmunoprecipitation, we found that Reelin interacted with APP through the central domain of Reelin (repeats 3-6) and the E1 extracellular domain of APP. Reelin increased cell surface levels of APP and decreased endocytosis of APP in hippocampal neurons in vitro. In vivo, Reelin levels were increased in brains of APP knock-out mice and decreased in APP-overexpressing mice. RNA interference knockdown of APP decreased neurite outgrowth in vitro and prevented Reelin from increasing neurite outgrowth. Knock-out of APP or Reelin decreased dendritic arborization in cortical neurons in vivo, and APP overexpression increased dendritic arborization. APP and Reelin have previously been shown to promote neurite outgrowth through interactions with integrins. We confirmed that APP interacted with alpha3beta1 integrin, and alpha3beta1 integrin altered APP trafficking and processing. Addition of an alpha3beta1 integrin antibody prevented APP and Reelin-induced neurite outgrowth. These findings demonstrate that Reelin interacts with APP, potentially having important effects on neurite development.
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Knuesel I, Nyffeler M, Mormède C, Muhia M, Meyer U, Pietropaolo S, Yee BK, Pryce CR, LaFerla FM, Marighetto A, Feldon J. Age-related accumulation of Reelin in amyloid-like deposits. Neurobiol Aging 2007; 30:697-716. [PMID: 17904250 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2007] [Revised: 07/23/2007] [Accepted: 08/13/2007] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggest that alterations in Reelin-mediated signaling may contribute to neuronal dysfunction associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common form of senile dementia. However, limited information is available on the effect of age, the major risk factor of AD, on Reelin expression. Here, we report that normal aging in rodents and primates is accompanied by accumulation of Reelin-enriched proteinous aggregates in the hippocampal formation that are related to the loss of Reelin-expressing neurons. Both phenomena are associated with age-related memory impairments in wild-type mice. We provide evidence that normal aging involves loss of Reelin neurons, reduced production and elimination of the extracellular deposits, whereas a prenatal immune challenge or the expression of AD-causing gene products, result in earlier, higher, and more persistent levels of Reelin-positive deposits. These aggregates co-localize with non-fibrillary amyloid-plaques, potentially representing oligomeric Abeta species. Our findings suggest that elevated Reelin plaque load creates a precursor condition for senile plaque deposition and may represent a critical risk factor for sporadic AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Knuesel
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
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