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Liu T, Wu H, Sun L, Wei J. Role of Inflammation in the Development of COVID-19 to Parkinson's Disease. J Inflamm Res 2024; 17:3259-3282. [PMID: 38800597 PMCID: PMC11127656 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s460161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Background The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) can lead to neurological symptoms such as headaches, confusion, seizures, hearing loss, and loss of smell. The link between COVID-19 and Parkinson's disease (PD) is being investigated, but more research is needed for a definitive connection. Methods Datasets GSE22491 and GSE164805 were selected to screen differentially expressed gene (DEG), and immune infiltration and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) of the DEG were performed. WGCNA analyzed the DEG and selected the intersection genes. Potential biological functions and signaling pathways were determined, and diagnostic genes were further screened using gene expression and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Screening and molecular docking of ibuprofen as a therapeutic target. The effectiveness of ibuprofen was verified by constructing a PD model in vitro, and constructing "COVID19-PD" signaling pathway, and exploring the role of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in PD. Results A total of 13 DEG were screened from the GSE36980 and GSE5281 datasets. Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) analysis showed that the DEG were mainly associated with the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance, etc. After analysis, it is found that ibuprofen alleviates PD symptoms by inhibiting the expression of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Based on signal pathway construction, the importance of ACE2 in COVID-19-induced PD has been identified. ACE2 is found to have widespread distribution in the brain. In the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-te-trahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced ACE2-null PD mice model, more severe motor and non-motor symptoms, increased NF-κB p65 and α-synuclein (α-syn) expression with significant aggregation, decreased tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), severe neuronal loss, and neurodegenerative disorders. Conclusion Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection increases the risk of PD through an inflammatory environment and downregulation of ACE2, providing evidence for the molecular mechanism and targeted therapy associated with COVID-19 and PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Liu
- Institute for Brain Sciences Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Institute of Neurourology and Urodynamics, Huaihe Hospital of Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, People’s Republic of China
| | - Haojie Wu
- Institute for Brain Sciences Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Institute of Neurourology and Urodynamics, Huaihe Hospital of Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lin Sun
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianshe Wei
- Institute for Brain Sciences Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Institute of Neurourology and Urodynamics, Huaihe Hospital of Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, People’s Republic of China
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Moneshwaran S, Macrin D, Kanagathara N. An unprecedented global challenge, emerging trends and innovations in the fight against COVID-19: A comprehensive review. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 267:131324. [PMID: 38574936 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.131324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2024] [Accepted: 03/30/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a highly contagious and dangerous virus that caused the global COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020. It primarily affects the respiratory system, leading to severe illness and high rates of mortality worldwide. The virus enters the body by binding to a receptor called ACE2, which is present in specific cells of the lungs known as type 2 alveolar epithelial cells. Numerous studies have investigated the consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection, revealing various impacts on the body. This review provides an overview of SARS-CoV-2, including its structure and how it infects cells. It also examines the different variants of concern, such as Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and the more recent Omicron variant, discussing their characteristics and the level of damage they cause. The usage of drugs to treat COVID-19 is another aspect that has been covered and compares the effectiveness and use of antiviral drugs in the treatment and its potential benefits in COVID-19 treatment. Furthermore, this review explores the consequences and abnormalities associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection, including its impact on various organs and systems in the body. And also discussing the different COVID-19 vaccines available and their effectiveness in preventing infection and reducing the severity of illness. The current review ensures the recent update of the COVID research with expert's knowledge, collection of numerous data from reliable sources and methodologies as well as update of findings based on reviews. This review also provided clear contextual explanations to aid the interpretation and application of the results. The main motto and limitation of this manuscript are to address the computational methods of drug discovery against the rapidly evolving SARS-CoV-2 virus, which has been discussed. Additionally, current computational approaches which are cost effective and can able to predict the therapeutic agents for the treatment against the virus have also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Moneshwaran
- Department of Bioinformatics, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Thandalam, Chennai 602 105, India
| | - D Macrin
- Department of Bioinformatics, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Thandalam, Chennai 602 105, India
| | - N Kanagathara
- Department of Physics, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Thandalam, Chennai 602 105, India.
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3
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Wei C, Yu X, Chen Y, Yang T, Li S, Li J, Chen X. Can Patients with Asymptomatic/Mild Illness and Moderate Illness COVID-19 Have White Matter Damage? Int J Gen Med 2023; 16:4585-4593. [PMID: 37840824 PMCID: PMC10576465 DOI: 10.2147/ijgm.s434968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose Studies have shown that severe coronavirus pandemic 2019 infection could lead to white matter hyperintensities, but the relationship between asymptomatic/mild illness and moderate illness coronavirus pandemic 2019 and white matter hyperintensities remains largely unknown. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between asymptomatic/mild illness and moderate illness coronavirus pandemic 2019 and the risk of white matter hyperintensities. Methods Hospitalized patients who were confirmed to have coronavirus pandemic 2019 for the first time were enrolled. Fazekas scores were used for assessment of the severity of white matter hyperintensities. We also rated the 90-day functional outcome after discharge. Results Of the 157 enrolled patients, 124 (78.98%) coronavirus pandemic 2019 patients were classified as having asymptomatic or mild illness, and 33 (21.02%) were classified as having moderate illness. The results showed that the Fazekas scale scores at baseline (periventricular white matter hyperintensities, 1.31±1.16 vs 2.06±1.20; Deep white matter hyperintensities, 1.04±0.97 vs 1.73±1.13 P <0.01) and at follow-up (periventricular white matter hyperintensities, 1.38±1.21 vs 2.09±1.21; Deep white matter hyperintensities, 1.13±1.04 vs 1.79±1.14 P <0.01) were lower in patients with symptomatic or mild illness than in those with moderate illness. Moreover, no significant difference (7.26% vs 3.03%; P =0.377) was observed between the two divided groups in terms of white matter hyperintensities progression. Conclusion Our findings suggest that moderate COVID-19 is related to severe white matter hyperintensities compared with asymptomatic/mild illness but not to the progression of white matter hyperintensities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cunsheng Wei
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211100, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaorong Yu
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211100, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuan Chen
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211100, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tingting Yang
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211100, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shenghua Li
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211100, People’s Republic of China
| | - Junrong Li
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211100, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xuemei Chen
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211100, People’s Republic of China
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Alkazmi L, Al-Kuraishy HM, Al-Gareeb AI, El-Bouseary MM, Ahmed EA, Batiha GES. Dantrolene and ryanodine receptors in COVID-19: The daunting task and neglected warden. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2023; 50:335-352. [PMID: 36732880 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.13756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Dantrolene (DTN) is a ryanodine receptor (RyR) antagonist that inhibits Ca2+ release from stores in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. DTN is mainly used in the management of malignant hyperthermia. RyRs are highly expressed in immune cells and are involved in different viral infections, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2), because Ca2+ is necessary for viral replication, maturation and release. DTN can inhibit the proliferation of SARS-CoV-2, indicating its potential role in reducing entry and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2. DTN may increase clearance of SARS-CoV-2 and promote coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) recovery by shortening the period of infection. DTN inhibits N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) mediated platelets aggregations and thrombosis. Therefore, DTN may inhibit thrombosis and coagulopathy in COVID-19 through suppression of platelet NMDA receptors. Moreover, DTN has a neuroprotective effect against SARS-CoV-2 infection-induced brain injury through modulation of NMDA receptors, which are involved in excitotoxicity, neuronal injury and the development of neuropsychiatric disorders. In conclusion, DTN by inhibiting RyRs may attenuate inflammatory disorders in SARS-CoV-2 infection and associated cardio-pulmonary complications. Therefore, DNT could be a promising drug therapy against COVID-19. Preclinical and clinical studies are warranted in this regards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luay Alkazmi
- Biology Department, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hayder M Al-Kuraishy
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Medicine, College of Medicine, Al-Mustansiriya University, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - Ali I Al-Gareeb
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Medicine, College of Medicine, Al-Mustansiriya University, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - Maisra M El-Bouseary
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
| | - Eman A Ahmed
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Gaber El-Saber Batiha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour, Egypt
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Dofuor AK, Quartey NKA, Osabutey AF, Boateng BO, Lutuf H, Osei JHN, Ayivi-Tosuh SM, Aiduenu AF, Ekloh W, Loh SK, Opoku MJ, Aidoo OF. The Global Impact of COVID-19: Historical Development, Molecular Characterization, Drug Discovery and Future Directions. CLINICAL PATHOLOGY (THOUSAND OAKS, VENTURA COUNTY, CALIF.) 2023; 16:2632010X231218075. [PMID: 38144436 PMCID: PMC10748929 DOI: 10.1177/2632010x231218075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
In December 2019, an outbreak of a respiratory disease called the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by a new coronavirus known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) began in Wuhan, China. The SARS-CoV-2, an encapsulated positive-stranded RNA virus, spread worldwide with disastrous consequences for people's health, economies, and quality of life. The disease has had far-reaching impacts on society, including economic disruption, school closures, and increased stress and anxiety. It has also highlighted disparities in healthcare access and outcomes, with marginalized communities disproportionately affected by the SARS-CoV-2. The symptoms of COVID-19 range from mild to severe. There is presently no effective cure. Nevertheless, significant progress has been made in developing COVID-19 vaccine for different therapeutic targets. For instance, scientists developed multifold vaccine candidates shortly after the COVID-19 outbreak after Pfizer and AstraZeneca discovered the initial COVID-19 vaccines. These vaccines reduce disease spread, severity, and mortality. The addition of rapid diagnostics to microscopy for COVID-19 diagnosis has proven crucial. Our review provides a thorough overview of the historical development of COVID-19 and molecular and biochemical characterization of the SARS-CoV-2. We highlight the potential contributions from insect and plant sources as anti-SARS-CoV-2 and present directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aboagye Kwarteng Dofuor
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, University of Environment and Sustainable Development, Somanya, Ghana
| | - Naa Kwarley-Aba Quartey
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Biosciences, College of Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
| | | | - Belinda Obenewa Boateng
- Coconut Research Program, Oil Palm Research Institute, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Sekondi-Takoradi, Ghana
| | - Hanif Lutuf
- Crop Protection Division, Oil Palm Research Institute, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Kade, Ghana
| | - Joseph Harold Nyarko Osei
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Selina Mawunyo Ayivi-Tosuh
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Albert Fynn Aiduenu
- West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - William Ekloh
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Seyram Kofi Loh
- Department of Built Environment, School of Sustainable Development, University of Environment and Sustainable Development, Somanya, Ghana
| | - Maxwell Jnr Opoku
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, University of Environment and Sustainable Development, Somanya, Ghana
| | - Owusu Fordjour Aidoo
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, University of Environment and Sustainable Development, Somanya, Ghana
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Singh MP, Singh N, Mishra D, Ehsan S, Chaturvedi VK, Chaudhary A, Singh V, Vamanu E. Computational Approaches to Designing Antiviral Drugs against COVID-19: A Comprehensive Review. Curr Pharm Des 2023; 29:2601-2617. [PMID: 37916490 DOI: 10.2174/0113816128259795231023193419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
The global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 necessitates innovative strategies for the rapid development of effective treatments. Computational methodologies, such as molecular modelling, molecular dynamics simulations, and artificial intelligence, have emerged as indispensable tools in the drug discovery process. This review aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of these computational approaches and their application in the design of antiviral agents for COVID-19. Starting with an examination of ligand-based and structure-based drug discovery, the review has delved into the intricate ways through which molecular modelling can accelerate the identification of potential therapies. Additionally, the investigation extends to phytochemicals sourced from nature, which have shown promise as potential antiviral agents. Noteworthy compounds, including gallic acid, naringin, hesperidin, Tinospora cordifolia, curcumin, nimbin, azadironic acid, nimbionone, nimbionol, and nimocinol, have exhibited high affinity for COVID-19 Mpro and favourable binding energy profiles compared to current drugs. Although these compounds hold potential, their further validation through in vitro and in vivo experimentation is imperative. Throughout this exploration, the review has emphasized the pivotal role of computational biologists, bioinformaticians, and biotechnologists in driving rapid advancements in clinical research and therapeutic development. By combining state-of-the-art computational techniques with insights from structural and molecular biology, the search for potent antiviral agents has been accelerated. The collaboration between these disciplines holds immense promise in addressing the transmissibility and virulence of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohan P Singh
- Centre of Biotechnology, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj 211002, India
| | - Nidhi Singh
- Centre of Bioinformatics, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj 211002, India
| | - Divya Mishra
- Centre of Bioinformatics, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj 211002, India
| | - Saba Ehsan
- Centre of Biotechnology, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj 211002, India
| | - Vivek K Chaturvedi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Anupriya Chaudhary
- Centre of Biotechnology, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj 211002, India
| | - Veer Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna 800007, India
| | - Emanuel Vamanu
- Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, Bucharest 011464, Romania
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7
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The Effect of Pomegranate Juice and Sumac Consumption in the Treatment of Outpatients with COVID-19. Mediators Inflamm 2022; 2022:6850342. [PMID: 36505757 PMCID: PMC9729036 DOI: 10.1155/2022/6850342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction COVID-19, an epidemic of coronavirus infection, has become a major global threat. The coronavirus mainly targets the human respiratory system, followed by cytokine storm, and altered immune responses associated with disease progression and adverse outcomes. Sumac and pomegranate juice are rich in bioactive compounds, which potentially have antiviral activities. This study is aimed at investigating the effect of a diet based on the use of sumac and pomegranate juice on the treatment of outpatients with COVID-19. Methods In this study, 182 outpatients with COVID-19 were randomly divided into two groups receiving a diet containing pomegranate juice and sumac along with standard treatment and the control group (group 2) receiving standard treatment. Results Consumption of a diet containing pomegranate juice and sumac in outpatients with COVID-19, who were receiving standard-of-care treatment, led to a significant decrease in fever, chills, cough, weakness, smell and taste disorders, shortness of breath, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, and abdominal pain compared with outpatients with COVID-19 who received only standard treatment. Conclusion Clinical trials of outpatients have limitations such as patients' resilience to post-COVID-19 follow-up. However, the use of pomegranate juice and sumac can be efficacious in reducing COVID-19 symptoms. This trial is registered with IRCT20190406043175N3.
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Araújo LPD, Dias MEC, Scodeler GC, Santos ADS, Soares LM, Corsetti PP, Padovan ACB, Silveira NJDF, de Almeida LA. Epitope identification of SARS-CoV-2 structural proteins using in silico approaches to obtain a conserved rational immunogenic peptide. IMMUNOINFORMATICS 2022; 7:100015. [PMID: 35721890 PMCID: PMC9188263 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuno.2022.100015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 10/29/2022]
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Potential of Microneedle Systems for COVID-19 Vaccination: Current Trends and Challenges. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14051066. [PMID: 35631652 PMCID: PMC9144974 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14051066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
To prevent the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and aid restoration to prepandemic normality, global mass vaccination is urgently needed. Inducing herd immunity through mass vaccination has proven to be a highly effective strategy for preventing the spread of many infectious diseases, which protects the most vulnerable population groups that are unable to develop immunity, such as people with immunodeficiencies or weakened immune systems due to underlying medical or debilitating conditions. In achieving global outreach, the maintenance of the vaccine potency, transportation, and needle waste generation become major issues. Moreover, needle phobia and vaccine hesitancy act as hurdles to successful mass vaccination. The use of dissolvable microneedles for COVID-19 vaccination could act as a major paradigm shift in attaining the desired goal to vaccinate billions in the shortest time possible. In addressing these points, we discuss the potential of the use of dissolvable microneedles for COVID-19 vaccination based on the current literature.
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Kumar SU, Priya NM, Nithya SR, Kannan P, Jain N, Kumar DT, Magesh R, Younes S, Zayed H, Doss CGP. A review of novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19): based on genomic structure, phylogeny, current shreds of evidence, candidate vaccines, and drug repurposing. 3 Biotech 2021; 11:198. [PMID: 33816047 PMCID: PMC8003899 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-021-02749-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic is instigated by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). As of March 13, 2021, more than 118.9 million cases were infected with COVID-19 worldwide. SARS-CoV-2 is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA beta-CoV. Most COVID-19 infected individuals recover within 1-3 weeks. Nevertheless, approximately 5% of patients develop acute respiratory distress syndrome and other systemic complications, leading to death. Structural genetic analyses of SARS-CoV-2 have shown genomic resemblances but a low evolutionary correlation to SARS-CoV-1 responsible for the 2002-2004 outbreak. The S glycoprotein is critical for cell adhesion and the entrance of the virus into the host. The process of cell entry uses the cellular receptor named angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. Recent evidence proposed that the CD147 as a SARS-CoV-2's potential receptor. The viral genome is mainly held by two non-structural proteins (NSPs), ORF1a and ORF1ab, along with structural proteins. Although NSPs are conserved among the βCoVs, mutations in NSP2 and NSP3 may play critical roles in transmitting the virus and cell tropism. To date, no specific/targeted anti-viral treatments exist. Notably, more than 50 COVID-19 candidate vaccines in clinical trials, and a few being administered. Preventive precautions are the primary strategy to limit the viral load transmission and spread, emphasizing the urgent need for developing significant drug targets and vaccines against COVID-19. This review provides a cumulative overview of the genomic structure, transmission, phylogeny of SARS-CoV-2 from Indian clusters, treatment options, updated discoveries, and future standpoints for COVID-19. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-021-02749-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Udhaya Kumar
- Department of Integrative Biology, School of BioSciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu, Vellore, 632 014 India
| | - N. Madhana Priya
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research (DU), Tamil Nadu, Porur, Chennai, 600116 India
| | - S. R. Nithya
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research (DU), Tamil Nadu, Porur, Chennai, 600116 India
| | - Priyanka Kannan
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research (DU), Tamil Nadu, Porur, Chennai, 600116 India
| | - Nikita Jain
- Department of Integrative Biology, School of BioSciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu, Vellore, 632 014 India
| | - D. Thirumal Kumar
- Department of Integrative Biology, School of BioSciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu, Vellore, 632 014 India
- Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, 602105 India
| | - R. Magesh
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research (DU), Tamil Nadu, Porur, Chennai, 600116 India
| | - Salma Younes
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health and Sciences, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Hatem Zayed
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health and Sciences, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - C. George Priya Doss
- Department of Integrative Biology, School of BioSciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu, Vellore, 632 014 India
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