Apelin-13 prevents apoptosis in the cochlear tissue of noise-exposed rat via Sirt-1 regulation

Neuroprotective effect of human cord blood-derived extracellular vesicles by improved neuromuscular function and reduced gliosis in a rat model of Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a hereditary condition characterized by the gradual deterioration of nerve cells in the striatum. Recent scientific investigations have revealed the promising potential of Extracellular vesicles (EVs) as a therapy to mitigate inflammation and enhance motor function. This study aimed to examine the impact of administering EVs derived from human umbilical cord blood (HUCB) on the motor abilities and inflammation levels in a rat model of HD. After ultracentrifugation to prepare EVs from HUCB to determine the nature of the obtained contents, the expression of CD markers 81 and 9, the average size and also the morphology of its particles were investigated by DLS and Transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Then, in order to induce the HD model, 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) neurotoxin was injected intraperitoneal into the rats, after treatment by HUCB-EVs, rotarod, electromyogram (EMG) and the open field tests were performed on the rats. Finally, after rat sacrifice and the striatum was removed, Hematoxylin and eosin staining (H&E), stereology, immunohistochemistry, antioxidant tests, and western blot were performed. Our results showed that the contents of the HUCB-EVs express the CD9 and CD81 markers and have spherical shapes. In addition, the injection of HUCB-EVs improved motor and neuromuscular function, reduced gliosis, increased antioxidant activity and inflammatory factor, and partially prevented the decrease of neurons. The findings generally show that HUCB-EVs have neuroprotective effects and reduce neuroinflammation from the toxic effects of 3-NP, which can be beneficial for the recovery of HD.

Apelin‑13 reduces high glucose‑induced mitochondrial dysfunction in cochlear hair cells by inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum stress

The complex manifestation of diabetic hearing loss and the relative inaccessibility of the inner ear contribute to the lack of research. The present study aimed to reveal the role of Apelin-13, a critical regulator of lipid metabolism, in diabetes-induced hearing loss. Cochlear hair cells treated with high glucose (HG) were adopted as an in vitro research model, and the impacts of Apelin-13 on cellular oxidative stress, apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress were determined. In addition, cells were treated with the ER stress agonist tunicamycin to further explore its potential role in the regulatory effects of Apelin-13. Apelin-13 inhibited oxidative stress and apoptosis in the HG-induced cells. Additionally, Apelin-13 elevated mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP production, whereas it reduced mitochondrial reactive oxygen species levels. The levels of ER stress-related proteins exhibited a downward trend in response to Apelin-13. By contrast, tunicamycin reversed the effects of Apelin-13 on the aforementioned aspects, suggesting the role of ER stress in the regulatory effects of Apelin-13. In conclusion, the present study elucidated the protective role of Apelin-13 in ameliorating HG-induced mitochondrial functional impairment in cochlear hair cells by inhibiting ER stress.

Protective effect of apelin-13 on ventilator-induced acute lung injury

BACKGROUND

Mechanical Ventilation (MV) is an essential mechanism of life support in the clinic. It may also lead to ventilator-induced acute lung injury (VILI) due to local alveolar overstretching and/or repeated alveolar collapse. However, the pathogenesis of VILI is not completely understood, and its occurrence and development may be related to physiological processes such as the inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Some studies have found that the the apelin/APJ axis is an endogenous antagonistic mechanism activated during acute respiratory distress syndrome(ARDS), that can counteract the injury response and prevent uncontrolled lung injury. To indicate that apelin-13 plays a protective role in VILI, an animal model of VILI was established in this study to explore whether apelin-13 can alleviate VILI in rats by inhibiting inflammation, apoptosis and oxidative stress.

METHODS

SD rats were divided into four groups: control, high tidal volume, high tidal volume + normal saline and high tidal volume + apelin-13. After tracheotomy, the rats in control maintained spontaneous breathing, and the other rats were connected to the small animal ventilator for 4 h to establish the rat VILI model. The mRNA expression of apelin was measured by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction(qRT-PCR), immunofluorescence and Western blotting(WB) were used to detect the expression level of APJ, and WB was used to detect the expression of the apoptotic proteins Bax and bcl-2. The degree of lung injury was evaluated by pathological staining of lung tissue,W/D ratio, and BALF total protein concentration. The expression of inflammatory factors(IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) in alveolar lavage fluid was measured using ELISA. The activities of MPO and cat and the content of MDA, an oxidative product, in lung tissue were measured to evaluate the degree of oxidative stress in the lung.

RESULTS

After treatment with apelin-13, the apelin/APJ axis in the lung tissue of VILI model rats was activated, and the effect was further enhanced. The pathological damage of lung tissue was alleviated, the expression of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 and the proapoptotic protein Bax was reversed, and the levels of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α levels were all decreased. MPO activity and MDA content decreased, while CAT activity increased.

CONCLUSION

The apelin/apj axis is activated in VILI. Overexpression of apelin-13 further plays a protective role in VILI, mainly by including reducing pathological damage, the inflammatory response, apoptosis and antioxidant stress in lung tissue, thus delaying the occurrence and development of VILI.

Apelin-13: A Protective Role in Vascular Diseases

Vascular disease is a common problem with high mortality all over the world. Apelin-13, a key subtype of apelin, takes part in many physiological and pathological responses via regulating many target genes and target molecules or participating in many signaling pathways. More and more studies have demonstrated that apelin-13 is implicated in the onset and progression of vascular disease in recent years. It has been shown that apelin-13 could ameliorate vascular disease by inhibiting inflammation, restraining apoptosis, suppressing oxidative stress, and facilitating autophagy. In this article, we sum up the progress of apelin-13 in the occurrence and development of vascular disease and offer some insightful views about the treatment and prevention strategies of vascular disease.

Apelin-13 protects against cisplatin-induced ototoxicity by inhibiting apoptosis and regulating STAT1 and STAT3

The ototoxic side effect of cisplatin is a main cause of sensorineural hearing loss. This side effect limits the clinical application of cisplatin and affects patients' quality of life. This study was designed to investigate the effect of apelin-13 on cisplatin-induced C57BL/6 mice hearing loss model and explore the potential underlying molecular mechanisms. Mice were intraperitoneally injected with 100 μg/kg apelin-13 2 h before 3 mg/kg cisplatin injection for 7 consecutive days. Cochlear explants cultured in vitro were pretreated with 10 nM apelin-13 2 h prior to 30 μM cisplatin treatment for another 24 h. Hearing test and morphology results showed that apelin-13 attenuated cisplatin-induced mice hearing loss and protected cochlear hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons from damage. In vivo and in vitro experimental results showed that apelin-3 reduced cisplatin-induced apoptosis of hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons. In addition, apelin-3 preserved mitochondrial membrane potential and inhibited ROS production in cultured cochlear explants. Mechanistic studies showed that apelin-3 decreased cisplatin-induced cleaved caspase 3 expression but increased Bcl-2; inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory factors TNF-a and IL-6; and increased STAT1 phosphorylation but decreased STAT3 phosphorylation. In conclusion, our results indicate that apelin-13 could be a potential otoprotective agent to prevent cisplatin-induced ototoxicity by inhibiting apoptosis, ROS production, TNF-α and IL-6 expression, and regulating phosphorylation of STAT1 and STAT3 transcription factors.

Effect of Noise and Music on Neurotransmitters in the Amygdala: The Role Auditory Stimuli Play in Emotion Regulation

Stress caused by noise is becoming widespread globally. Noise may lead to deafness, endocrine disorders, neurological diseases, and a decline in mental health. The mechanism behind noise-induced neurodevelopmental abnormalities is unclear, but apoptosis and pro-inflammatory signals may play an important role. In this study, weaned piglets were used as a model to explore noise-induced neurodevelopmental abnormalities. We hypothesized that long-term noise exposure would induce anxiety and cause acute stress, exhibited by alterations in neurotransmission in the amygdala. A total of 72 hybrid piglets (Large White × Duroc × Min Pig) were randomly divided into three groups, including noise (exposed to mechanical noise, 80-85 dB), control (blank, exposed to natural background sound, <40 dB), and music (positive control, exposed to Mozart K.448, 60-70 dB) groups. The piglets were exposed to 6 h of auditory noise daily (10:00-16:00) for 28 days. Compared with the control group, piglets exposed to noise showed more aggressive behavior. The expression of Caspase3, Caspase9, Bax, NF-κB (p56), TLR4, MYD88, I κ B α, IL-1 β, TNF-α, and IL-12RB2 was significantly upregulated in the amygdala, while the expression of Nrf2, HO-1, CAT, and SOD was downregulated in piglets in the noise group. Cell death occurred, and numerous inflammatory cells accumulated in the amygdala of piglets in the noise group. Targeted metabolomics showed that the content of inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA was higher in the amygdala of piglets in the noise group. Compared with the noise group, piglets in the music group displayed more positive emotion-related behaviors. Compared with the noise group, the expression of genes related to apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative damage was lower in the music group. Cells of the amygdala in the music group were also of normal morphology. Our results show that noise-induced stress causes apoptosis and neuroinflammation in the amygdala and induces anxiety during the early neonatal neural development of piglets. In contrast, to some extent, music alleviates noise-induced anxiety.

Comparative Transcriptomic Analysis of Archival Human Vestibular Schwannoma Tissue from Patients with and without Tinnitus

Vestibular schwannoma (VS) is an intracranial tumor that commonly presents with tinnitus and hearing loss. To uncover the molecular mechanisms underlying VS-associated tinnitus, we applied next-generation sequencing (Illumina HiSeq) to formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded archival VS samples from nine patients with tinnitus (VS-Tin) and seven patients without tinnitus (VS-NoTin). Bioinformatic analysis was used to detect differentially expressed genes (DEG; i.e., ≥two-fold change [FC]) while correcting for multiple comparisons. Using RNA-seq analysis, VS-Tin had significantly lower expression of GFAP (logFC = −3.04), APLNR (logFC = −2.95), PREX2 (logFC = −1.44), and PLVAP (logFC = −1.04; all p < 0.01) vs. VS-NoTin. These trends were validated by using real-time RT-qPCR. At the protein level, immunohistochemistry revealed a trend for less PREX2 and apelin expression and greater expression of NLRP3 inflammasome and CD68-positive macrophages in VS-Tin than in VS-NoTin, suggesting the activation of inflammatory processes in VS-Tin. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that the top three protein categories—glycoproteins, signal peptides, and secreted proteins—were significantly enriched in VS-Tin in comparison with VS-NoTin. In a gene set enrichment analysis, the top pathway was allograft rejection, an inflammatory pathway that includes the MMP9, CXCL9, IL16, PF4, ITK, and ACVR2A genes. Future studies are needed to examine the importance of these candidates and of inflammation in VS-associated tinnitus.

Exogenous Apelin-13 Administration Ameliorates Cyclophosphamide- Induced Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Apoptosis in Rat Lungs

BACKGROUND

Apelin-13 is an endogenous adipocytokine known for its antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and antiapoptotic properties.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate the possible protective effects of exogenous Apelin-13 administration on oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis induced by the cytotoxic agent cyclophosphamide (CP) in the lungs.

METHODS

Twenty-four male Wistar albino rats were divided into four groups: Control (saline), CP (200 mg/kg), Apelin-13 (10 μg/kg/day), and CP+Apelin-13. CP was administered as a single dose on the fifth day, and apelin-13 was administered intraperitoneally for five days. Total oxidant status (TOS), total antioxidant status (TAS), and lipid peroxidation were determined with spectrophotometry, TNFα and IL1β were determined with ELISA, APJ, Sirt1, NF-κB, and p53 mRNA expressions were determined with qRT-PCR, cytochrome (Cyt) C and caspase-3 protein expressions were studied with western blotting in lung tissues. The oxidative stress index (OSI) was also calculated. Furthermore, serum surfactant protein-D (SP-D) and Krebs von den Lungen-6 (KL-6) levels were measured with ELISA.

RESULTS

Compared to the control group, TOS, OSI, lipid peroxidation, TNFα, IL1β, cyt C, caspase-3, APJ, NF-κB, and p53 were higher, and Sirt1 was lower in the lung tissue of rats in the CP group. Serum KL-6 and SP-D levels were higher in the CP group. Co-administration of CP with Apelin-13 completely reversed the changes induced by CP administration.

CONCLUSION

Exogenous Apelin-13 treatment protected lung tissue against injury by inhibiting cyclophosphamide-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. This protective effect of apelin-13 was accompanied by upregulation of the Sirt1 and downregulation of NF-κB/p53 in the lungs.

The Apelinergic System: Apelin, ELABELA, and APJ Action on Cell Apoptosis: Anti-Apoptotic or Pro-Apoptotic Effect?

The apelinergic system comprises two peptide ligands, apelin and ELABELA, and their cognate G-protein-coupled receptor, the apelin receptor APJ. Apelin is a peptide that was isolated from bovine stomach extracts; the distribution of the four main active forms, apelin-36, -17, -13, and pyr-apelin-13 differs between tissues. The mature form of ELABELA-32 can be transformed into forms called ELABELA-11 or -21. The biological function of the apelinergic system is multifaceted, and includes the regulation of angiogenesis, body fluid homeostasis, energy metabolism, and functioning of the cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems. This review summarises the mechanism of the apelinergic system in cell apoptosis. Depending on the cell/tissue, the apelinergic system modulates cell apoptosis by activating various signalling pathways, including phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK1/2), protein kinase B (AKT), 5'AMP-activated protein kinase(AMPK), and protein kinase A (PKA). Apoptosis is critically important during various developmental processes, and any dysfunction leads to pathological conditions such as cancer, autoimmune diseases, and developmental defects. The purpose of this review is to present data that suggest a significant role of the apelinergic system as a potential agent in various therapies.

G protein-coupled receptors in cochlea: Potential therapeutic targets for hearing loss

The prevalence of hearing loss-related diseases caused by different factors is increasing worldwide year by year. Currently, however, the patient’s hearing loss has not been effectively improved. Therefore, there is an urgent need to adopt new treatment measures and treatment techniques to help improve the therapeutic effect of hearing loss. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), as crucial cell surface receptors, can widely participate in different physiological and pathological processes, particularly play an essential role in many disease occurrences and be served as promising therapeutic targets. However, no specific drugs on the market have been found to target the GPCRs of the cochlea. Interestingly, many recent studies have demonstrated that GPCRs can participate in various pathogenic process related to hearing loss in the cochlea including heredity, noise, ototoxic drugs, cochlear structure, and so on. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the functions of 53 GPCRs known in the cochlea and their relationships with hearing loss, and highlight the recent advances of new techniques used in cochlear study including cryo-EM, AI, GPCR drug screening, gene therapy vectors, and CRISPR editing technology, as well as discuss in depth the future direction of novel GPCR-based drug development and gene therapy for cochlear hearing loss. Collectively, this review is to facilitate basic and (pre-) clinical research in this area, and provide beneficial help for emerging GPCR-based cochlear therapies.

Combined treatment of retinoic acid with olfactory ensheathing cells protect gentamicin-induced SGNs damage in the rat cochlea in vitro

Hearing is mainly dependent on the function of hair cells (HCs) and spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) which damage or loss of them leads to irreversible hearing loss. Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are specialized glia that forms the fascicles of the olfactory nerve by surrounding the olfactory sensory axons. The OECs, as a regenerating part of the nervous system, play a supporting function in axonal regeneration and express a wide range of growth factors. In addition, retinoic acid (RA) enhances the proliferation and differentiation of these cells into the nerve. In the present study, we co-cultured human OECs (hOECs) with cochlear SGNs in order to determine whether hOECs and RA co-treatment can protect the repair process in gentamycin-induced SGNs damage in vitro. For this purpose, cochlear cultures were prepared from P4 Wistar rats, which were randomly appointed to four groups: normal cultivated SGNs (Control), gentamicin-lesioned SGNs culture (Gent), gentamicin-lesioned SGNs culture treated with OECs (Gent + OECs) and gentamicin-lesioned SGNs culture co-treated with OECs and RA (Gent + OEC& RA). The expression of a specific protein in SGNs was examined using immunohistochemical and Western blotting technique. TUNEl staining was used to detect cell apoptosis. Here, we revealed that combined treatment of OECs and RA protect synapsin and Tuj-1 expression in the lesioned SGNs and attenuate cell apoptosis. These findings suggest that RA co-treatment can enhance efficiency of OECs in repair of SGNs damage induced by ototoxic drug.

Epigallocatechin gallate-loaded tetrahedral DNA nanostructures as a novel inner ear drug delivery system

The study of drug delivery systems to the inner ear is a crucial but challenging field. The sensory organ (in the inner ear) is protected by the petrous bone labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth, both of which need to be overcome during the drug delivery process. The requirements for such a delivery system include small size, appropriate flexibility and biodegradability. DNA nanostructures, biomaterials that can arrange multiple functional components with nanometer precision, exhibit characteristics that are compatible with the requirements for inner ear drug delivery. Herein, we report the development of a novel inner ear drug delivery system based on epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)-loaded tetrahedral DNA nanostructures (TDNs, EGCG@TDNs). The TDNs self-assembled via base-pairing of four single-stranded DNA constructs and EGCG was loaded into the TDNs through non-covalent interactions. Cy5-labeled TDNs (Cy5-TDNs) were significantly internalized by the House Ear Institute-Organ of Corti 1 cell line, and this endocytosis was energy-, clathrin-, and micropinocytosis-dependent. Cy5-TDNs penetrated the round window membrane (RWM) rapidly in vivo. Local application of EGCG@TDNs onto the RWM of guinea pigs in a single dose continuously released EGCG over 4 hours. Drug concentrations in the perilymph were significantly elevated compared with the administration of free EGCG at the same dose. EGCG@TDNs were found to have favorable biocompatibility and strongly affected the RSL3-induced down-regulation of GPX4 and the generation of reactive oxygen species, on the basis of 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate staining. JC-1 staining suggested that EGCG@TDNs successfully reversed the decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential induced by RSL-3 in vitro and rescued cells from apoptosis, as demonstrated by the analysis of Annexin V-FITC/PI staining. Further functional studies showed that a locally administered single-dose of EGCG@TDNs effectively preserved spiral ganglion cells in C57/BL6 mice after noise-induced hearing loss. Hearing loss at 5.6 and 8 kHz frequencies was significantly attenuated when compared with the control EGCG formulation. Histological analyses indicated that the administration of TDNs and EGCG@TDNs did not induce local inflammatory responses. These favorable histological and functional effects resulting from the delivery of EGCG by TDNs through a local intratympanic injection suggest potential for therapeutic benefit in clinical applications.

Involvement of the SIRT1/PGC-1α Signaling Pathway in Noise-Induced Hidden Hearing Loss

Objective: To establish an animal model of noise-induced hidden hearing loss (NIHHL), evaluate the dynamic changes in cochlear ribbon synapses and cochlear hair cell morphology, and observe the involvement of the SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling pathway in NIHHL.

Methods: Male guinea pigs were randomly divided into three groups: control group, noise exposure group, and resveratrol treatment group. Each group was divided into five subgroups: the control group and 1 day, 1 week, 2 weeks, and 1 month post noise exposure groups. The experimental groups received noise stimulation at 105 dB SPL for 2 h. Hearing levels were examined by auditory brainstem response (ABR). Ribbon synapses were evaluated by inner ear basilar membrane preparation and immunofluorescence. The cochlear morphology was observed using scanning electron microscopy. Western blotting analysis and immunofluorescence was performed to assess the change of SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling. Levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT), ATP and SIRT1 activity were measured using commercial testing kits.

Results: In the noise exposure group, hearing threshold exhibited a temporary threshold shift (TTS), and amplitude of ABR wave I decreased irreversibly. Ribbon synapse density decreased after noise exposure, and the stereocilia were chaotic and then returned to normal. The expression and activity of SIRT1 and PGC-1α protein was lower than that in the control group. SOD, CAT and ATP were also influenced by noise exposure and were lower than those in the control group, but MDA showed no statistical differences compared with the control group. After resveratrol treatment, SIRT1 expression and activity showed a significant increase after noise exposure, compared with the noise exposure group. In parallel, the PGC-1α and antioxidant proteins were also significantly altered after noise exposure, compared with the noise exposure group. The damage to the ribbon synapses and the stereocilia were attenuated by resveratrol as well. More importantly, the auditory function, especially ABR wave I amplitudes, was also promoted in the resveratrol treatment group.

Conclusion: The SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling pathway and oxidative stress are involved in the pathogenesis of NIHHL and could be potential therapeutical targets in the future.

Apelin-13 attenuates injury following ischemic stroke by targeting matrix metalloproteinases (MMP), endothelin- B receptor, occludin/claudin-5 and oxidative stress

Oxidative stress, an adverse consequence of brain ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), activates matrix metalloproteinase enzymes which cause to destruction of extracellular matrix and tight junction proteins. Oxidative stress during stroke increases serum endothelin-1 and endothelin B receptor (ETBR) expression. Apelin-13, an endogenous peptide, is expressed in numerous tissues that regulate diverse physiological and pathological processes. This study aimed to investigate the effect of intravenous (IV) injection of apelin-13 on cerebral vasogenic edema due to brain IRI. Animals were divided into sham, ischemia, and treat groups. IRI model was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 60 min followed by 23 h reperfusion. Apelin-13 was injected into the tail vein 5 min before reperfusion. Neurological defects were evaluated with longa test. Brain water content and BBB permeability were assessed according to cerebral dry-wet weight and brain Evans blue extraction. Malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) were measured using the colorimetric method. Expression of occludin and claudin-5, matrix metalloproteinase- 2 and 9 (MMP-2 & 9) and, ETBR were evaluated using Western blot. Brain IRI was associated with BBB breakdowns and vasogenic edema. Apelin-13 significantly reduced BBB permeability and vasogenic edema. Apelin-13 significantly attenuated IRI-related oxidative stress. Apelin-13 decreased expression of mmp-2, 9 and ETBR, prevented from decrement of occludin and claudin-5 expersion, which protected BBB integrity and reduced vasogenic edema. In conclusion, our results have suggested that an IV injection of apelin-13 could somehow reduce vasogenic edema via targeting oxidative stress and ETBR expression.