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Jin S, Pang W, Zhao L, Zhao Z, Mei S. Review of HPLC-MS methods for the analysis of nicotine and its active metabolite cotinine in various biological matrices. Biomed Chromatogr 2022; 36:e5351. [PMID: 35106788 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.5351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, tobacco smoking is a risk factor for a series of diseases including cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, and cancers. Nicotine, the primary component of tobacco smoke, is mainly transformed to its active metabolite cotinine, which is often used as biomarker for tobacco exposure for its higher blood concentration and longer residence time than nicotine. Various analytical methods have been developed for the determination of nicotine and cotinine in biological matrices. This article reviewed the HPLC-MS based methods for nicotine and/or cotinine analysis in various biological matrices. The sample preparation, mass and chromatographic conditions and method validation results of these methods have been summarized and analyzed. Sample was mainly pretreated by protein precipitation and/or extraction. Separation was achieved using methanol and/or acetonitrile:water (with or without ammonium acetate) on C18 columns, and acetonitrile:water (with formic acid, ammonium acetate/formate) on HILIC columns. Nicotine-d3, nicotine-d4 and cotinine-d3 were commonly used internal standards. Other non-deuterated IS were also used such as ritonavir, N-ethylnorcotinine, and milrinone. For both nicotine and cotinine, the calibration range was 0.005-35000 ng/mL, the matrix effect was 75.96% - 126.8% and the recovery was 53% - 124.5%. The two analytes were stable at room temperature for 1-10 days, at -80 °C for up to 6 months, and after 3-6 freeze-thaw cycles. Comedications did not affect nicotine and cotinine analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyao Jin
- Clinical Research Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing, P. R. China.,Department of Clinical Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Wenyuan Pang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, P. R. China.,Department of Pharmacy, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Libo Zhao
- Clinical Research Center, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing, P. R. China.,Department of Clinical Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Zhigang Zhao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Shenghui Mei
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, P. R. China
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Jaszczak-Wilke E, Kozioł K, Kiełbratowska B, Polkowska Ż. Ion Chromatography with Pulsed Amperometric Detection for Determining Cyanide in Urine and Meconium Samples. Molecules 2021; 26:4672. [PMID: 34361828 PMCID: PMC8348170 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26154672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The parents' addictions and eating habits have a significant influence on the child's growth. The first stool of a newborn baby provides a large amount of information about xenobiotics transmitted by the mother's body. The analytical technique used in the study is ion chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (IC-PAD). The biological samples, which were obtained from women staying in a maternity ward and their partners, revealed cyanide concentrations in urine samples spanning 1.30-25.3 μg L-1. Meanwhile, the results of the meconium samples were in the range of 1.54 μg L-1 to 24.9 μg L-1. Under the optimized chromatographic conditions, the IC-PAD system exhibited satisfactory repeatability (R < 3%, n = 3) and good linearity in the range of 1-100 μg L-1. Thus, it proved to be an effective tool for monitoring trace cyanide concentration in a series of human body fluid matrices, including meconium. Based on the literature review, this is the first application of the IC-PAD analytical technique for the determination of cyanide ions in meconium samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Jaszczak-Wilke
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 Narutowicza Str., 80-233 Gdansk, Poland; (E.J.-W.); (K.K.)
| | - Krystyna Kozioł
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 Narutowicza Str., 80-233 Gdansk, Poland; (E.J.-W.); (K.K.)
| | - Bogumiła Kiełbratowska
- Department of Obstetrics, Medical University of Gdansk, Marii Skłodowskiej-Curie 3a, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland;
| | - Żaneta Polkowska
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 Narutowicza Str., 80-233 Gdansk, Poland; (E.J.-W.); (K.K.)
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López-Rabuñal Á, Lendoiro E, González-Colmenero E, Concheiro-Guisán A, Concheiro-Guisán M, Peñas-Silva P, Macias-Cortiña M, López-Rivadulla M, Cruz A, de-Castro-Ríos A. Assessment of Tobacco Exposure During Pregnancy by Meconium Analysis and Maternal Interview. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:797-802. [PMID: 32227079 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Smoking during pregnancy can have serious obstetric and fetal complications. Therefore, it is essential to identify in utero exposure to tobacco, being meconium the matrix of choice for this purpose. Meconium (n = 565) was analyzed for nicotine, cotinine and hydroxycotinine by LC-MS-MS. Then, tobacco meconium results were compared with smoking habits during pregnancy and neonatal outcomes measures (birth weight, length, head circumference, gestational age and Apgar scores). Although meconium analysis increased identification of in-utero exposure to tobacco (17.7% meconium positive specimens vs 13.5% mothers admitting tobacco use during pregnancy), there was a statistically significant relationship between meconium results and interview answers (P < 0.001). Birth weight was significantly lower for newborns with meconium positive results in males (P = 0.023) and females (P = 0.001), while for length significance was only observed in females (P = 0.001); however, when excluding meconium specimens positive for other drugs, a statistically significant difference was only found for female weight (P = 0.045). Meconium analysis proved to be more reliable for tobacco prenatal exposure detection than maternal interview. In addition, positive meconium results increased the probability for low birth weight, especially in females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ángela López-Rabuñal
- Servizo de Toxicoloxía, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Elena Lendoiro
- Servizo de Toxicoloxía, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | | | - Ana Concheiro-Guisán
- Sección de Neonatoloxía, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
| | | | - Patricia Peñas-Silva
- Sección de Xinecoloxía e Obstetricia, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Manuel Macias-Cortiña
- Sección de Xinecoloxía e Obstetricia, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Manuel López-Rivadulla
- Servizo de Toxicoloxía, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Angelines Cruz
- Servizo de Toxicoloxía, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Ana de-Castro-Ríos
- Servizo de Toxicoloxía, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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El Mubarak MA, Danika C, Cachon C, Korovila C, Atsopardi K, Panagopoulos N, Margarity M, Poulas K, Sivolapenko GB. In vivo quantification and pharmacokinetic studies of cotinine in mice after smoke exposure by LC-MS/MS. Biomed Chromatogr 2019; 34:e4752. [PMID: 31756277 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.4752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive analytical method was developed and validated for the quantification of cotinine in mouse plasma after exposure to smoke of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 commercially available cigarettes, using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The method was validated over a linear concentration range of 0.075-20.0 ng/mL with the R2 value being higher than 0.99. Both the precision (coefficient of variation; %) and accuracy (relative error; %) were within acceptable criteria of <15%. The lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) for cotinine was 0.075 ng/mL with sufficient specificity, accuracy, and precision. Following exposure to 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 cigarette smoke, it was observed that the AUC and the Cmax increased linearly as the doses increased. The pharmacokinetics of cotinine was found linear for the range of 0.5-1.5 commercial cigarette smoke. The quantification of the concentration of cotinine in mouse plasma after smoke exposure will facilitate future behavioral and toxicological experiments in animals and may prove useful in predicting cotinine levels in humans during smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed A El Mubarak
- Laboratory of Pharmacokinetics, Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Charikleia Danika
- Laboratory of Pharmacokinetics, Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Charlyne Cachon
- Laboratory of Pharmacokinetics, Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Charalambia Korovila
- Laboratory of Human and Animal Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Korina Atsopardi
- Laboratory of Human and Animal Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Panagopoulos
- Laboratory of Human and Animal Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Marigoula Margarity
- Laboratory of Human and Animal Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Poulas
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Immunology, Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Gregory B Sivolapenko
- Laboratory of Pharmacokinetics, Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
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Meconium analysis as a promising diagnostic tool for monitoring fetal exposure to toxic substances: Recent trends and perspectives. Trends Analyt Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Arbuckle TE, Liang CL, Fisher M, Caron NJ, Fraser WD. Exposure to tobacco smoke and validation of smoking status during pregnancy in the MIREC study. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2018; 28:461-469. [PMID: 29296002 PMCID: PMC8075994 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-017-0011-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2017] [Revised: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 09/24/2017] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Given that prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke can lead to increased risks of adverse health effects, having valid measures of exposure is important. In a Canadian cohort (n = 2000), maternal and infant biospecimens were analysed for cotinine. Sensitivity and specificity of self-reported active smoking status were estimated. Regression modelling was used to identify potential predictors of maternal and infant plasma cotinine in non-smoking women. During the first trimester, 60.6% of the women reported never smoking, 27.3% were former smokers, 6.1% had quit when they found out they were pregnant, 5.8% were smokers and 42% of the non-smokers reported exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS). Low detection of tobacco biomarkers in meconium limited its ability to identify exposure to SHS. The sensitivity and specificity for self-reported smoking during the 1st trimester were 85.37 and 99.45%, respectively. The lowest sensitivity was found in participants with the highest level of education and income, oldest women and those born outside Canada. Non-smoking women living in an apartment had 1.7 times higher odds of detectable plasma cotinine than those living in a single home after adjusting for other variables. Our results suggest that while self-reports are fairly accurate, they may be less so in populations with higher socio-economic status. This investigation underscores the need to consider the participant socio-economic characteristics and dwelling type when using questionnaires to estimate active and passive tobacco exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tye E Arbuckle
- Population Studies Division, Environmental Health Science and Research Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
| | - Chun Lei Liang
- Population Studies Division, Environmental Health Science and Research Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Mandy Fisher
- Population Studies Division, Environmental Health Science and Research Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Nicolas J Caron
- Le Centre de toxicologie du Québec, Institut national de santé publique du Québec, Quebec, QC, Canada
| | - William D Fraser
- Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier universitaire de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
- Sainte Justine University Hospital Research Center, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Krpo M, Arnestad M, Karinen R. Determination of Acetaminophen, Dexchlorpheniramine, Caffeine, Cotinine and Salicylic acid in 100 μL of Whole Blood by UHPLC–MS/MS. J Anal Toxicol 2017; 42:126-132. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkx089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Maja Krpo
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950, Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Marianne Arnestad
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950, Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Ritva Karinen
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950, Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
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Recent advances in MS methods for nicotine and metabolite analysis in human matrices: clinical perspectives. Bioanalysis 2015; 6:2171-83. [PMID: 25331861 DOI: 10.4155/bio.14.176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Tobacco smoking is a major global health issue and represents the leading cause of preventable death in the developed countries. Nicotine is a major alkaloid found in tobacco products and its detection with its metabolites in human matrices is generally used for assessing tobacco consumption and second hand exposure. Several analytical techniques have been developed for the detection of nicotine and its metabolites, and MS coupled with chromatography is considered the standard reference method because of its superior sensitivity and specificity. In this work, we reviewed nicotine metabolism, clinical MS and the latest (2009-2014) development of MS-based techniques for measurement of nicotine and metabolites in human matrices. Appropriate biomarker and matrix selection are also critically discussed.
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Tsinisizeli N, Sotiroudis G, Xenakis A, Lykeridou KE. Determination of nicotine and cotinine in meconium from Greek neonates and correlation with birth weight and gestational age at birth. CHEMOSPHERE 2015; 119:1200-1207. [PMID: 25460762 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.09.094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Revised: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 09/21/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Tobacco exposure during pregnancy is a major factor of morbidity and mortality for both the pregnant woman and the fetus. Several studies in the past have detected and quantified tobacco smoke biomarkers in infant meconium samples. Aim of this study was to measure prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke by detecting nicotine and cotinine in meconium and to try to evaluate the extent of exposure to smoke through passive smoking as well as the relationship between tobacco biomarker meconium concentrations and neonatal outcomes. Tobacco smoke biomarkers nicotine and cotinine were detected and quantitated in meconium from tobacco exposed and non-exposed Greek neonates using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The study included 45 neonates from active, passive and non-smoking women during pregnancy. The results showed significant values of nicotine and cotinine concentration in neonates from both active and passive smokers which reached 125 ng g(-1) for nicotine and 98.5 ng g(-1) for cotinine and varied according to the type and level of exposure. In general nicotine and cotinine concentrations correlated with the degree of active smoking by the mother. Similarly, nicotine and cotinine were measured in the meconium of infants of passive smokers at concentrations comparable to those of infants whose mothers were moderate smokers. Our findings show that exposure of the fetus to tobacco biomarkers can be substantial even in passive maternal smoking and there is a statistically significant negative correlation between nicotine or cotinine concentrations in meconium and birth weight or gestational age at birth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikoleta Tsinisizeli
- Faculty of Health and Caring Professions, Midwifery Department, Technological Educational Institute of Athens, Agiou Spyridonos Str., 12210 Egaleo, Greece; Institute of Biology, Medicinal Chemistry and Biotechnology, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 48 Vassileos Constantinou Ave., 11635 Athens, Greece.
| | - Georgios Sotiroudis
- Institute of Biology, Medicinal Chemistry and Biotechnology, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 48 Vassileos Constantinou Ave., 11635 Athens, Greece.
| | - Aristotelis Xenakis
- Institute of Biology, Medicinal Chemistry and Biotechnology, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 48 Vassileos Constantinou Ave., 11635 Athens, Greece.
| | - Katerina E Lykeridou
- Faculty of Health and Caring Professions, Midwifery Department, Technological Educational Institute of Athens, Agiou Spyridonos Str., 12210 Egaleo, Greece.
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Berton T, Mayhoub F, Chardon K, Duca RC, Lestremau F, Bach V, Tack K. Development of an analytical strategy based on LC-MS/MS for the measurement of different classes of pesticides and theirs metabolites in meconium: application and characterisation of foetal exposure in France. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2014; 132:311-320. [PMID: 24834827 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2014.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2013] [Revised: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 03/27/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
It is important to evaluate the impact of pesticides on human health because exposure to these compounds has been linked to harmful effects in many research studies. This exposure may be particularly harmful during the early stages of development (e.g. the prenatal period). The aim of the present study was to develop an analytical strategy for quantifying a number of pesticides and their metabolites in meconium (the neonate's first faeces), in order to characterize the extent of foetal exposure. The meconium sample was dried and grinded in order to homogenize the sample, prior to solid-liquid extraction and a purification by solid-phase extraction using a weak anion mixed-mode polymeric sorbent. Analyte separation and quantification was performed by liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Five pesticide families (carbamates, organophosphates, pyrethroids, phenylureas and phenoxy herbicides) and their metabolites could be quantified in meconium with limits of quantification ranging between 0.2 ng/g and 200 ng/g. This method was applied to a set of 171 meconium samples collected in the Picardie region of northern France. The highest prevalence was observed for metabolites of organophosphates and carbamates (57.9% and 22.8%, respectively). The parent pesticides were rarely present and were only found at very low concentrations, except for the pyrethroids cyfluthrin and cypermethrin, which were found in 7.6% of meconium samples at concentrations of between 43.8 and 480 ng/g. The most frequently detected contaminant was the organophosphate metabolite dimethyl thiophosphate detected in 49.1% of the samples and quantified with a median concentration of 344 ng/g. These data evidence significant foetal exposure to organophosphate pesticides, pyrethroids and carbamates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Berton
- Péritox UMI INERIS 01EA 4285, UFR de Médecine, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 3 rue des Louvels, F-80036 Amiens, France; INERIS, Direction des Risques Chroniques, Parc Technologique Alata, F-60550 Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
| | - Flora Mayhoub
- Péritox UMI INERIS 01EA 4285, UFR de Médecine, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 3 rue des Louvels, F-80036 Amiens, France
| | - Karen Chardon
- Péritox UMI INERIS 01EA 4285, UFR de Médecine, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 3 rue des Louvels, F-80036 Amiens, France
| | - Radu-Corneliu Duca
- Péritox UMI INERIS 01EA 4285, UFR de Médecine, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 3 rue des Louvels, F-80036 Amiens, France; INERIS, Direction des Risques Chroniques, Parc Technologique Alata, F-60550 Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
| | - Francois Lestremau
- INERIS, Direction des Risques Chroniques, Parc Technologique Alata, F-60550 Verneuil-en-Halatte, France.
| | - Véronique Bach
- Péritox UMI INERIS 01EA 4285, UFR de Médecine, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 3 rue des Louvels, F-80036 Amiens, France
| | - Karine Tack
- INERIS, Direction des Risques Chroniques, Parc Technologique Alata, F-60550 Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
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Kailasa SK, Wu HF. Recent Advances in Mass Spectrometry for the Identification of Neuro-chemicals and their Metabolites in Biofluids. Curr Neuropharmacol 2013; 11:436-64. [PMID: 24381533 PMCID: PMC3744906 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x11311040007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2012] [Revised: 04/05/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, mass spectrometric related techniques have been widely applied for the identification and quantification of neurochemicals and their metabolites in biofluids. This article presents an overview of mass spectrometric techniques applied in the detection of neurological substances and their metabolites from biological samples. In addition, the advances of chromatographic methods (LC, GC and CE) coupled with mass spectrometric techniques for analysis of neurochemicals in pharmaceutical and biological samples are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suresh Kumar Kailasa
- Department of Applied Chemistry, S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat – 395007, India
| | - Hui-Fen Wu
- Department of Chemistry, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, 80424, Taiwan
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, 800, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, 80424, Taiwan
- Doctoral Degree Program in Marine Biotechnology, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
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