Determination of pharmaceutical and illicit drugs in oral fluid by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

Recent Update on Pretreatment and Analysis Methods of Buprenorphine in Different Matrix

Buprenorphine is one of the most commonly used pain-killing drugs due to its lengthy duration of action and high potency. However, excessive usage of buprenorphine can be harmful to one's health and prolonged use might result in addiction. Additionally, an increasing number of cases have been documented involving the illegal use of buprenorphine. Therefore, a variety of effective and reliable methods for pretreatment and determination of buprenorphine and its main metabolite norbuprenorphine have been established. This review aims to update the current state of pretreatment and detection techniques for buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine from January 2010 to March 2022. Pretreatment methods include several traditional extraction methods, solid-phase extraction, QuECHERS, various micro-extraction techniques, etc. while analytical methods include LC-MS, LC coupled with other detectors, GC-MS, capillary electrophoresis, electrochemical sensors, etc. The pros and cons of various techniques were compared and summarized, and the prospects were provided.HIGHLIGHTSProgress in pretreatment and detection methods for buprenorphine is demonstrated.Pros and cons of different pretreatment and analysis methods are compared.New materials (such as nanomaterials and magnetic materials) used in buprenorphine pretreatment are summarized.Newly emerged environmental-friendly methods are discussed.

Overview of the bioanalytical methods used for the determination of benzodiazepines in biological samples and their suitability for emergency toxicological analysis

Benzodiazepines are one of the most widely used classes of drugs around the world. They are medically used in different therapeutic areas including insomnia, anxiety, epilepsy, and anesthesia. Unfortunately, these drugs are very widespread in the illicit market for recreational purposes and cause drug dependence, traffic accidents, and criminality. Furthermore, benzodiazepine misuse leads to acute poisoning cases that often end up in hospital emergency rooms. Therefore, it is crucial for hospitals to possess straightforward and efficient bioanalytical techniques that enable the swift detection of benzodiazepines in biological samples. This review provides a general overview of the different bioanalytical techniques used for the detection and quantification of benzodiazepines in biological samples and emphasizes their suitability for emergency toxicological analyzes.

Analysis of 2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamines and 2,5-dimethoxy-phenethylamines aiming their determination in biological matrices: a review

PURPOSE

The present review aims to provide an overview of methods for the quantification of 2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamines and -phenethylamines in different biological matrices, both traditional and alternative ones.

METHODS

A complete literature search was carried out with PubMed, Scopus and the World Wide Web using relevant keywords, e.g., designer drugs, amphetamines, phenethylamines, and biological matrices.

RESULTS

Synthetic phenethylamines represent one of the largest classes of "designer drugs", obtained through chemical structure modifications of psychoactive substances to increase their pharmacological activities. This practice is also favored by the fact that every new synthetic compound is not considered illegal by existing legislation. Generally, in a toxicological laboratory, the first monitoring of drugs of abuse is made by rapid screening tests that sometimes can occur in false positive or false negative results. To reduce evaluation errors, it is mandatory to submit the positive samples to confirmatory methods, such as gas chromatography or liquid chromatography combined to mass spectrometry, for a more specific qualitative and quantitative analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

This review highlights the great need for updated comprehensive analytical methods, particularly when analyzing biological matrices, both traditional and alternative ones, for the search of newly emerging designer drugs.

Alprazolam Detection Using an Electrochemical Nanobiosensor Based on AuNUs/Fe-Ni@rGO Nanocomposite

Despite all the psychological advantages of alprazolam, its long list of toxic properties and interactions has caused concern and highlighted the need for a reliable sensing method. In this study, we developed a simple, highly sensitive electrochemical nanobiosensor to determine the desirable dose of alprazolam, averting the undesirable consequences of overdose. Gold nanourchins (AuNUs) and iron-nickel reduced graphene oxide (Fe-Ni@rGO) were immobilized on a glassy carbon electrode, which was treated beforehand. The electrode surface was characterized using cyclic voltammetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and differential pulse voltammetry. The fabricated sensor showed two linear ranges (4 to 500 µg L^-1 and 1 to 50 mg L^-1), low limit of detection (1 µg L^-1), high sensitivity, good repeatability, and good recovery. Increased -OH and carboxyl (-COOH) groups on the electrode surface, resulting in improved the adsorption of alprazolam and thus lower limit of detection. This nanobiosensor could detect alprazolam powder dissolved in diluted blood serum; we also studied other benzodiazepine drugs (clonazepam, oxazepam, and diazepam) with this nanobiosensor, and results were sensible, with a significant difference.

Online SPE UPLC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of 33 psychoactive drugs from swab-collected human oral fluid samples

Oral fluid is easy and safe to collect and allows the detection of drugs of abuse after local exposure by oral, smoked, and/or inhaled intake, or systemic exposure. A routine online solid-phase extraction UPLC-MS/MS method was developed for the simultaneous determination of 33 psychoactive drugs in oral fluid. The selected drugs were fourteen fentanyl analogs and nineteen other abused psychoactive compounds, including classical narcotics, which were analyzed in a run of 10 min. Limits of detection and of quantification ranged from 0.02 to 1 ng/mL and from 0.02 to 5 ng/mL depending on the analyte, respectively. Matrix effect was in the range - 17 to + 15.7% for all analytes having a deuterated analog. Accuracy ranged from 82.7 to 113.4% and precision CV was at worst of 18.6%. Carryover was below 0.8% for all analytes. Recovery from FLOQSwabs™ showed high variability between analytes with THC, D2FF, 4-ANPP, ocfentanil, and valerylfentanyl being recovered below 40%. A stability study performed over 2 weeks on collecting devices loaded with artificial oral fluid showed huge variation between analytes with morphine, BZE, and norfentanyl being the more stable. Storage at 4 °C allowed drug detection for 1 week except for THC and remifentanil. The method was successfully applied to the detection of abused psychoactive compounds in oral fluid samples from 6 patients admitted to an addiction department.

Determination of morphine and its metabolites in the biological samples: an updated review

Morphine (MO) as an opioid analgesic is used for the treatment of moderate-to-severe pains, particularly cancer-related pains. Pharmacologic studies on MO are complicated due to drugs binding to the protein or metabolization to active metabolites, and even inter-individual variability. This necessitates the selection of a reliable analytical method for monitoring MO and the concentrations of its metabolites in the biological samples for the pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic investigations. Therefore, this study was conducted to review all the analytical research carried out on MO and its metabolites in the biological samples during 2007-2019 as an update to the study by Bosch et al. (2007).

Cellulose cone tip as a sorbent material for multiphase electrical field-assisted extraction of cocaine from saliva and determination by LC-MS/MS

A porous and hydrophilic sorbent material was used in an extraction system, assisted by electric fields, for the extraction of cocaine in saliva and subsequent determination by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography associated with sequential triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). The cellulose-based material was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and X-ray diffraction. The time and voltage variables applied in the extraction process were investigated through a Doehlert experimental design, and with the best conditions found (35min and 300 V) some validation parameters were evaluated. The established working range was 1-100 μg L^-1 (R² > 0.99), and the detection and quantification limits determined were 0.3 and 0.8 μg L^-1, respectively. Recoveries from 80 to 115% and coefficient of variation ≤15 and 16% for intra-day and inter-day assays, respectively, were obtained for sample concentrations of LOQ, 5, 25, and 75 μg L^-1, indicating satisfactory accuracy and precision for the proposed method. In addition, the method presented no matrix effect, and the extraction efficiency was between 56 and 70%. The results showed that the material used has adequate physicochemical characteristics and can be applied as a sorbent and electrolyte support in multiphase extractions using electric fields.

Determination of antipsychotic drugs in oral fluid using dried saliva spots by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

The present work describes the optimization and validation of an analytical method for the determination of six antipsychotic drugs (chlorpromazine, levomepromazine, cyamemazine, clozapine, haloperidol, and quetiapine) in oral fluid samples after solvent extraction from dried saliva spots, by gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The method was fully validated, and the included parameters were selectivity, linearity, limits of quantification, precision and accuracy, stability, and recovery. The method was linear for all compounds from 10 to 400 ng/mL, except for haloperidol (5-100 ng/mL), presenting coefficients of determination higher than 0.99. Inter- and intra-day precision and accuracy were in conformity with the criteria usually seen in bioanalytical method validation; i.e., coefficients of variation were lower than 15% and an accuracy of 15% or better for all studied drugs. The recoveries obtained with this miniaturized technique ranged from 63 to 97%. The herein described method is the first to be reported using the dried saliva spots approach for the analysis of these antypshychotic drugs, proving great sensitivity apart from its simple and fast procedure. The method was considered a good alternative to the conventional techniques to be applied in clinical and toxicological analyses, even more taking into account the extremely low sample volume used (50 μL). Graphical abstract.

Analytical Methods Used for the Detection and Quantification of Benzodiazepines

The prescription of psychotropic drugs, especially benzodiazepines (BZDs), occupies a preponderant place in the management of mental illnesses. Indeed, the BZDs have been used in different therapeutic areas including insomnia, anxiety, seizure disorders, or general anesthesia. Unfortunately, these drugs are present in the illegal street market, leading to a lot of drug abuse amongst some addicted users, road insecurity, and suicide. Hence, it has become essential to analyze the BZDs drugs in human biological specimens for drug abuse in forensic sciences. The present review provides a summary of sample preparation techniques (solid-phase extraction and Liquid-liquid phase extraction) and the methods for the detection and quantification of BZDs molecules in the commonly used biological specimens over the ten last years which may potentially lead to better and accurate evaluation of the physiological state of a given person. The commonly used methods for the detection and quantification of BZDs include nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), chromatography (GC-MS, HPLC, and TLC), immunoassay (ELISA, RIA, LFA, CEDEA, FPIA, and KIMS), and electroanalytical methods (voltammetry and potentiometry).

LC-MS-MS with Post-Column Reagent Addition for the Determination of Zolpidem and its Metabolite Zolpidem Phenyl-4-carboxylic Acid in Oral Fluid after a Single Dose

A rapid, selective and sensitive LC-MS-MS method with a post-column addition of acetonitrile was developed and fully validated for the quantitative determination of zolpidem and its major metabolite, zolpidem phenyl-4-carboxylic acid (ZPCA), in oral fluid. Preliminary sample treatment was limited to a simple dilution of 1 mL oral fluid specimen aliquots with methanol. Chromatography was performed on a Capcell Pak C18 MGII column (250 × 2.0 mm, 5 μm i.d., Shiseido, Tokyo, Japan) with isocratic elution using a water-acetonitrile mobile phase with 0.1% formic acid, 5% acetonitrile and 20 mM ammonium acetate in an aqueous phase at a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min. Acetonitrile was added post-column at a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min to enhance ionization of the analytes in the MS source. Detection was carried out on a QTrapTM 6500 mass spectrometer in positive ionization mode. Good linearities were generated over the range of 0.05-200 ng/mL for zolpidem and 0.1-200 ng/mL for ZPCA. Limit of detection for zolpidem and ZPCA were 0.01 ng/mL and 0.05 ng/mL, respectively, whereas LLOQs were 0.05 ng/mL and 0.1 ng/mL, respectively. This method meets the required criteria for bioanalytical analyses to be used for clinical and forensic purposes. Application of this method was demonstrated by testing authentic samples collected after a single oral dose to obtain insights into the general detectability and detection windows of zolpidem and ZPCA in oral fluid.

Direct drug analysis from oral fluid using medical swab touch spray mass spectrometry

Fourteen common drugs of abuse were identified in spiked oral fluid (ng mL(-1) levels), analyzed directly from medical swabs using touch spray mass spectrometry (TS-MS), exemplifying a rapid test for drug detection. Multiple stages of mass analysis (MS(2) and MS(3)) provided identification and detection limits sought by international forensic and toxicological societies, Δ(9)-THC and buprenorphine excluded. The measurements were made using a medical swab as both the sampling probe and means of ionization. The adaptation of medical swabs for TS-MS analysis allows non-invasive and direct sampling of neat oral fluid. Data acquisition was rapid, seconds per drug, and MS(3) ensured reliable identification of illicit drugs. The reported data were acquired to investigate (i) ionization of common drugs from commercial swabs, (ii) ion intensity over spray duration, and (iii) dynamic range, all as initial steps in development of a quantitative method. The approach outlined is intended for point-of-care drug testing using oral fluid in clinical applications as well as in situ settings, viz. in forensic applications. The proof-of-concept results presented will require extension to other controlled substances and refinement in analytical procedures to meet clinical/legal requirements.

Detection of strep throat causing bacterium directly from medical swabs by touch spray-mass spectrometry

Strep throat causing Streptococcus pyogenes was detected in vitro and in simulated clinical samples by performing touch spray ionization-mass spectrometry. MS analysis took only seconds to reveal characteristic bacterial and human lipids. Medical swabs were used as the substrate for ambient ionization. This work constitutes the initial step in developing a non-invasive MS-based test for clinical diagnosis of strep throat. It is limited to the single species, S. pyogenes, which is responsible for the vast majority of cases. The method is complementary to and, with further testing, a potential alternative to current methods of point-of-care detection of S. pyogenes.