Effect of AOT on enzymatic activity of the organic solvent resistant tyrosinase from Streptomyces sp. REN-21 in aqueous solutions and water-in-oil microemulsions

Application of bacterial tyrosinases in organic synthesis

Bacterial tyrosinases, as in the case of other bacterial oxidative enzymes, have been found to possess biochemical characteristics that typically make them more suited to applications requiring special operational conditions such as alkaline pH, high or low temperature, the presence of organic solvents, and the presence of inhibitors. Even though a great deal is known about fungal tyrosinases, bacterial tyrosinases still vastly remain underexplored for their potential application in organic synthesis. A literature survey in particular highlights the gaps in our knowledge pertaining to their biochemical properties. Bacterial tyrosinases have not only shown promise in the synthesis of medically important compounds such as L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) and melanin but have also seen application in cross-linking reactions of proteins and the polymerization of environmental pollutants. Their ability to catalyse o-hydroxylation reactions have shown some degree of promise in the biocatalytic conversion of resveratrol to piceatannol, tyrosol to hydroxytyrosol, and many more. In this review, we will explore the world of bacterial tyrosinases, their current applications, and future perspectives for the application of these enzymes in organic synthesis.

Bacterial tyrosinases: old enzymes with new relevance to biotechnology

Tyrosinases are copper-containing dioxygen activating enzymes found in many species of bacteria and are usually associated with melanin production. These proteins have a strong preference for phenolic and diphenolic substrates and are somewhat limited in their reaction scope, always producing an activated quinone as product. Despite this fact they have potential in several biotechnological applications, including the production of novel mixed melanins, protein cross-linking, phenolic biosensors, production of l-DOPA, phenol and dye removal and biocatalysis. Although most studies have used Streptomyces sp. enzymes, there are several other examples of these proteins that are also of potential interest. For instance a solvent tolerant enzyme has been described, as well as an enzyme with both tyrosinase and laccase activities, enzymes with altered substrate preferences, an enzyme produced as an inactive zymogen as well as examples which do not require auxiliary proteins for copper insertion (unlike the Streptomyces sp. enzymes which do require such a protein). This article will summarise the reports on the biotechnological applications of bacterial tyrosinases as well as the current information available on the different types of this enzyme.

A novel water-in-ionic liquid microemulsion and its interfacial effect on the activity of laccase

It is of great significance to develop an appropriate water-in-ionic liquid (W/IL) microemulsion suitable for the expression of the catalytic activity of a given enzyme. In this paper, the phase diagram of a new AOT/Triton X-100/H(2)O/[Bmim][PF(6)] pseudo ternary system is presented. With the aid of nonionic surfactant Triton X-100, AOT could be dissolved in hydrophobic ionic liquid [Bmim][PF(6)], forming a large single phase microemulsion region. The water-in-[Bmim][PF(6)] (W/IL) microemulsion domain was identified electrochemically by using K(3)Fe(CN)(6) as a probe. The existence of W/IL microemulsions was demonstrated spectrophotometrically by using CoCl(2) as a probe. New evidences from the FTIR spectroscopic study, which was first introduced to the W/IL microemulsion by substituting D(2)O for H(2)O to eliminate the spectral interference, demonstrated that there existed bulk water at larger ω(0) values (ω(0) was defined as the molar ratio of water to the total surfactant) in the W/IL microemulsion, which had remained unclear before. In addition to the inorganic salts, biomacromolecule laccase could be solubilized in the W/IL microemulsion. The laccase hosted in the microemulsion exhibited a catalytic activity and the activity could be regulated by the composition of the interfacial membrane.

Catalytic activities of fungal oxidases in hydrophobic ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate-based microemulsion

For hydrophobic ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([BMIM][PF(6)]), an H(2)O-in-[BMIM][PF(6)] microemulsion could be formed in the presence of nonionic surfactant Triton X-100 (TX-100). In such a medium, both lignin peroxidase (LiP) and laccase could express their catalytic activity with the optimum molar ratio of H(2)O to TX-100 at 8.0 for LiP and >20 for laccase, and the optimum pH values at 3.2 for LiP and 4.2 for laccase, respectively. As compared with pure or water saturated [BMIM][PF(6)], in which the two oxidases had negligible catalytic activity due to the strong inactivating effect of [BMIM][PF(6)] on both enzymes, the use of the [BMIM][PF(6)]-based microemulsion had some advantages. Not only the catalytic activities of both fungal oxidases greatly enhanced, but also the apparent viscosity of the medium decreased.

Kinetics of reactions catalyzed by enzymes in solutions of surfactants

The effect of surfactants, both in water-in-oil microemulsions (hydrated reverse micelles) and aqueous solutions upon enzymatic processes is reviewed, with special emphasis on the effect of the surfactant upon the kinetic parameters of the process. Differences and similarities between processes taking place in aqueous and organic solvents are highlighted, and the main models currently employed to interpret the results are briefly discussed.

Enhanced Solubilization of Bovine Serum Albumin in Reverse Micelles by Compressed CO2

The effect of compressed CO2 on the solubilization of bovine serum albumin (BSA) in water/sodium bis-(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate (AOT)/isooctane reverse micelles was studied by observing phase behavior and recording UV-visible spectra under different conditions. The pH values within the water cores of reverse micelles at different CO2 pressures were also determined. The solubilization capacity of the reverse micelles for the protein increased considerably as CO2 pressure increased within the low-pressure range, but decreased at higher CO2 pressures, so that the micelles eventually lost their ability to solubilize the protein. The effect of CO2 on the stability of the reverse micelles played an important role in the relationship between pressure and protein solubility. A "multicomplex" model was proposed to explain these effects. The different solublization capacities within different pressure ranges demonstrates the unique advantage of using compressed CO2 in the extraction of proteins with reverse micelles.

Catalytic Properties of an Organic Solvent–Resistant Tyrosinase from Streptomyces sp. REN-21 and Its High-Level Production in E. coli

An organic solvent-resistant tyrosinase (OSRT) from Streptomyces sp. REN-21 is a unique enzyme showing high activity in the presence of organic solvents. The OSRT-catalyzed oxidation of monophenols such as tyrosine-containing peptides and proteins was examined. The catalytic properties of OSRT were compared with those of mushroom tyrosinase. OSRT was shown to oxidize Gly-l-Tyr most effectively among four peptide substrates tested. On the other hand, mushroom tyrosinase showed the highest activity toward l-Tyr-Gly under the condition of 1 mM substrate. OSRT oxidized several proteins, including casein and hemoglobin, with relatively higher activity compared with mushroom tyrosinase under the condition of 1% (w/v) substrate. Thus, it was clarified that the catalytic properties of OSRT toward tyrosine-containing peptides and proteins are different from those of mushroom tyrosinase under these conditions. The OSRT-encoding gene operon was cloned, and found to consist of two genes, designated ORF-OSRT and ORF-393. The former encodes apo-OSRT, and the latter encodes the putative activator protein of apo-OSRT. A binuclear copper-binding site (type-3 copper site) characteristic of tyrosinases is contained in the deduced amino acid sequence for apo-OSRT. A high-level production system for the OSRT was constructed using pET20b(+) and Escherichia coli BL21(DE3)pLysS. Approximately 54 mg of active OSRT was synthesized in a 1-liter broth culture by this system. The properties of the recombinant OSRT were similar to those of the wild-type enzyme. In conclusion, we succeeded in constructing a high-level production system for OSRT.