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Criado-Gonzalez M, Peñas MI, Barbault F, Müller AJ, Boulmedais F, Hernández R. Salt-induced Fmoc-tripeptide supramolecular hydrogels: a combined experimental and computational study of the self-assembly. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:9887-9898. [PMID: 38683577 DOI: 10.1039/d4nr00335g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
Delving into the mechanism behind the molecular interactions at the atomic level of short-sequence peptides plays a key role in the development of nanomaterials with specific structure-property-function relationships from a bottom-up perspective. Due to their poor water solubility, the self-assembly of Fmoc-bearing peptides is usually induced by dissolution in an organic solvent, followed by a dilution step in water, pH changes, and/or a heating-cooling process. Herein, we report a straightforward methodology for the gelation of Fmoc-FFpY (F: phenylalanine; Y: tyrosine; and p: PO42-), a negatively charged tripeptide, in NaCl solution. The electrostatic interactions between Fmoc-FFpY and Na+ ions give rise to different nanofibrillar hydrogels with rheological properties and nanofiber sizes modulated by the NaCl concentration in pure aqueous media. Initiated by the electrostatic interactions between the peptide phosphate groups and the Na+ ions, the peptide self-assembly is stabilized thanks to hydrogen bonds between the peptide backbones and the π-π stacking of aromatic Fmoc and phenyl units. The hydrogels showed self-healing and thermo-responsive properties for potential biomedical applications. Molecular dynamics simulations from systems devoid of prior training not only confirm the aggregation of peptides at a critical salt concentration and the different interactions involved, but also corroborate the secondary structure of the hydrogels at the microsecond timescale. It is worth highlighting the remarkable achievement of reproducing the morphological behavior of the hydrogels using atomistic simulations. To our knowledge, this study is the first to report such a correspondence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miryam Criado-Gonzalez
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), 28006 Madrid, Spain.
- POLYMAT and Department of Polymers and Advanced Materials: Physics, Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Mario Iván Peñas
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), 28006 Madrid, Spain.
- POLYMAT and Department of Polymers and Advanced Materials: Physics, Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | | | - Alejandro J Müller
- POLYMAT and Department of Polymers and Advanced Materials: Physics, Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza Euskadi 5, 48009 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Fouzia Boulmedais
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR 22), 67034 Strasbourg, France
| | - Rebeca Hernández
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), 28006 Madrid, Spain.
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2
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Zhang K, Zhou Y, Moreno S, Schwarz S, Boye S, Voit B, Appelhans D. Reversible crowdedness of pH-responsive and host-guest active polymersomes: Mimicking µm-sized cell structures. J Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 654:1469-1482. [PMID: 37858368 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2023.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
The structure-function characteristics of isolated artificial organelles (AOs) in protocells are mainly known, but there are few reports on clustered or aggregated AOs. To imitate µm-sized complex and heterogeneous cell structures, approaches are needed that enable reversible changes in the aggregation state of colloidal structures in response to chemical, biological, and external stimuli. To construct adaptive organelle-like or cell-like reorganization characteristics, we present an advanced crosslinking strategy to fabricate clustered polymersomes as a platform based on host-guest interactions between azobenzene-containing polymersomes (Azo-Psomes) and a β-cyclodextrin-modified polymer (β-CD polymer) as a crosslinker. First, the reversible (dis)assembly of clustered Azo-Psomes is carried out by the alternating input of crosslinker and adamantane-PEG3000 as a decrosslinker. Moreover, cluster size dependence is demonstrated by environmental pH. These offer the controlled fabrication of various homogeneous and heterogeneous Azo-Psomes structures, including the size regulation and visualization of clustered AOs through a fluorescent enzymatic cascade reaction. Finally, a temperature-sensitive crosslinking agent with β-CD units can promote the coaggregation of Azo-Psomes mediated by temperature changes. Overall, these (co-)clustered Azo-Psomes and their successful transformation in AOs may provide new features for modelling biological systems for eukaryotic cells and systems biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kehu Zhang
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany; Chair of Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden 01062, Germany
| | - Yang Zhou
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany; Chair of Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden 01062, Germany
| | - Silvia Moreno
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany.
| | - Simona Schwarz
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany
| | - Susanne Boye
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany
| | - Brigitte Voit
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany; Chair of Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden 01062, Germany
| | - Dietmar Appelhans
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany.
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3
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Lin Z, Beneyton T, Baret JC, Martin N. Coacervate Droplets for Synthetic Cells. SMALL METHODS 2023; 7:e2300496. [PMID: 37462244 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202300496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
The design and construction of synthetic cells - human-made microcompartments that mimic features of living cells - have experienced a real boom in the past decade. While many efforts have been geared toward assembling membrane-bounded compartments, coacervate droplets produced by liquid-liquid phase separation have emerged as an alternative membrane-free compartmentalization paradigm. Here, the dual role of coacervate droplets in synthetic cell research is discussed: encapsulated within membrane-enclosed compartments, coacervates act as surrogates of membraneless organelles ubiquitously found in living cells; alternatively, they can be viewed as crowded cytosol-like chassis for constructing integrated synthetic cells. After introducing key concepts of coacervation and illustrating the chemical diversity of coacervate systems, their physicochemical properties and resulting bioinspired functions are emphasized. Moving from suspensions of free floating coacervates, the two nascent roles of these droplets in synthetic cell research are highlighted: organelle-like modules and cytosol-like templates. Building the discussion on recent studies from the literature, the potential of coacervate droplets to assemble integrated synthetic cells capable of multiple life-inspired functions is showcased. Future challenges that are still to be tackled in the field are finally discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi Lin
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, UMR5031, 115 avenue du Dr. Schweitzer, 33600, Pessac, France
| | - Thomas Beneyton
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, UMR5031, 115 avenue du Dr. Schweitzer, 33600, Pessac, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Baret
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, UMR5031, 115 avenue du Dr. Schweitzer, 33600, Pessac, France
| | - Nicolas Martin
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, UMR5031, 115 avenue du Dr. Schweitzer, 33600, Pessac, France
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4
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Yang N, Zhu YY, Lin WX, Lu YL, Xu WR. pH-Responsive fluorescent supramolecular nanoparticles based on tetraphenylethylene-labelled chitosan and a six-fold carboxylated tribenzotriquinacene. Beilstein J Org Chem 2023; 19:635-645. [PMID: 37205131 PMCID: PMC10186267 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.19.45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
We synthesized a new tetraphenylethylene-modified chitosan bioconjugate, CS-TPE, that shows the aggregation-induced emission effect. It can self-assemble into fluorescent polymeric nanoparticles in an aqueous solution at pH 5.3 either alone or with the water-soluble bowl-shaped six-fold carboxylated tribenzotriquinacene derivative TBTQ-C6 via host-guest binding. The spherical nanoparticles formed by CS-TPE amphiphiles or TBTQ-C6/CS-TPE supra-amphiphiles disintegrated under alkaline stimulation at pH 10.4 and the dispersion of the aggregates after the collapse in the presence of TBTQ-C6 was greatly improved. In addition, the fluorescence of CS-TPE was significantly enhanced by introducing TBTQ-C6, and remained relatively stable with variations in pH for both CS-TPE and TBTQ-C6/CS-TPE. Such pH-responsive supramolecular spherical nanoparticles with stable fluorescence emission based on CS-TPE or TBTQ-C6/CS-TPE may find applications in various fields, including the development of visual oral drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Yang
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Fine Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, School of Science, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, PR China
| | - Yi-Yan Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Fine Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, School of Science, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, PR China
| | - Wei-Xiu Lin
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Fine Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, School of Science, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, PR China
| | - Yi-Long Lu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Fine Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, School of Science, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, PR China
| | - Wen-Rong Xu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Fine Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, School of Science, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, PR China
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5
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Xu L, Chu Z, Zhang J, Cai T, Zhang X, Li Y, Wang H, Shen X, Cai R, Shi H, Zhu C, Pan J, Pan D. Steric Effects in the Deposition Mode and Drug-Delivering Efficiency of Nanocapsule-Based Multilayer Films. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:30321-30332. [PMID: 36061696 PMCID: PMC9434745 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c03591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Using surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), block polymers with a series of quaternization degrees were coated on the surface of silica nanocapsules (SNCs) by the "grafting-from" technique. Molnupiravir, an antiviral medicine urgently approved for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2, was encapsulated in polymer-coated SNCs and further incorporated into well-defined films with polystyrene sulfonate (PSS) homopolymers by layer-by-layer (LBL) self-assembly via electrostatic interactions. We investigated the impact of the quaternization degree of the polymers and steric hindrance of functional groups on the growth mode, swelling/deswelling transition, and drug-delivering efficiency of the obtained LBL films. The SNCs were derived from coronas of parent block polymers of matched molecular weights-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-block-poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (PNIPAM-b-PDMAEMA)-by quaternization with methyl sulfate. As revealed by the data results, SNCs with coronas with higher quaternization degrees resulted in a larger layering distance of the film structure because of weaker ionic pairing (due to the presence of a bulky methyl spacer) between SNCs and PSS. Interestingly, when comparing the drug release profile of the encapsulated drugs from SNC-based films, the release rate was slower in the case of capsule coronas with higher quaternization degrees because of the larger diffusion distance of the encapsulated drugs and stronger hydrophobic-hydrophobic interactions between SNCs and drug molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Xu
- Institute
of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Zihan Chu
- Institute
of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Jianhua Zhang
- N.O.D
Topia (GuangZhou) Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, Guangdong 510599, China
| | - Tingwei Cai
- Guangdong
Jiabo Pharmaceutical Co., Qingyuan, Guangdong 511517, China
| | - Xingxing Zhang
- Institute
of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Yinzhao Li
- Institute
of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Hailong Wang
- Institute
of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Xiaochen Shen
- China
Tobacco Jiangsu Industrial Co., Ltd., Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Raymond Cai
- Institute
of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Haifeng Shi
- Institute
of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Chunyin Zhu
- Institute
of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Jia Pan
- Novo
Nordisk Research Center—Indianapolis, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana 46241, United States
| | - Donghui Pan
- Jiangsu
Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214063, China
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6
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Yu X, Zhou L, Wang G, Wang L, Dou H. Hierarchical Structures in Macromolecule-assembled Synthetic Cells. Macromol Rapid Commun 2022; 43:e2100926. [PMID: 35445490 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202100926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Various models of synthetic cells have been developed as researchers have sought to explore the origin of life. Based on the fact that structural complexity is the foundation of higher-order functions, this review will focus on hierarchical structures in synthetic cell models that are inspired by living systems, in which macromolecules are the dominant participants. We discuss the underlying advantages and functions provided by biomimetic higher-order structures from four perspectives, including hierarchical structures in membranes, in the composite construction of membrane-coated artificial cytoplasm, in organelle-like subcellular compartments, as well as in synthetic cell-cell assembled synthetic tissues. In parallel, various feasible driving forces and approaches for the fabrication of such higher-order structures are showcased. Furthermore, we highlight both the implemented and potential applications of biomimetic systems, bottom-up biosynthesis, biomedical tissue engineering, and disease therapy. This thriving field is gradually narrowing the gap between fundamental research and applied science. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolei Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, P. R. China
| | - Long Zhou
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, No. 85 Wujin Road, Shanghai, 200080, P. R. China
| | - Gangyang Wang
- Gangyang Wang, Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, No. 85 Wujin Road, Shanghai, 200080, P. R. China
| | - Lei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, P. R. China
| | - Hongjing Dou
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, P. R. China
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7
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Criado-Gonzalez M, Espinosa-Cano E, Rojo L, Boulmedais F, Aguilar MR, Hernández R. Injectable Tripeptide/Polymer Nanoparticles Supramolecular Hydrogel: A Candidate for the Treatment of Inflammatory Pathologies. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:10068-10080. [PMID: 35179869 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c22993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Supramolecular peptide-based hydrogels attract great attention in several fields, i.e., biomedicine, catalysis, energy, and materials chemistry, due to the noncovalent nature of the self-assembly and functional tunable properties defined by the amino acid sequence. In this work, we developed an injectable hybrid supramolecular hydrogel whose formation was triggered by electrostatic interactions between a phosphorylated tripeptide, Fmoc-FFpY (F: phenylalanine, pY: phosphorylated tyrosine), and cationic polymer nanoparticles made of vinylimidazole and ketoprofen (poly(HKT-co-VI) NPs). Hydrogel formation was assessed through inverted tube tests, and its fibrillary structure, around polymer NPs, was observed by transmission electron microscopy. Interestingly, peptide self-assembly yields the formation of nontwisted and twisted fibers, which could be attributed to β-sheets and α-helix structures, respectively, as characterized by circular dichroism and infrared spectroscopies. An increase of the elastic modulus of the Fmoc-FFpY/polymer NPs hybrid hydrogels was observed with peptide concentration as well as its injectability property, due to its shear thinning behavior and self-healing ability. After checking their stability under physiological conditions, the cytotoxicity properties of these hybrid hydrogels were evaluated in contact with human dermal fibroblasts (FBH) and murine macrophages (RAW 264.7). Finally, the Fmoc-FFpY/polymer NPs hybrid hydrogels exhibited a great nitric oxide reduction (∼67%) up to basal values of pro-inflammatory RAW 264.7 cells, thus confirming their excellent anti-inflammatory properties for the treatment of localized inflammatory pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miryam Criado-Gonzalez
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), c/ Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Eva Espinosa-Cano
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), c/ Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- CIBER-BBN, c/ Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Pabellón 11, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis Rojo
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), c/ Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- CIBER-BBN, c/ Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Pabellón 11, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Fouzia Boulmedais
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR 22), 23 rue du Loess, BP 84047, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, France
| | - María Rosa Aguilar
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), c/ Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- CIBER-BBN, c/ Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Pabellón 11, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Rebeca Hernández
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), c/ Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
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Ivanov AS, Pershina LV, Nikolaev KG, Skorb EV. Recent Progress of Layer-by-layer Assembly, Free-Standing Film and Hydrogel Based on Polyelectrolytes. Macromol Biosci 2021; 21:e2100117. [PMID: 34272830 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202100117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Nowadays, polyelectrolytes play an essential role in the development of new materials. Their use allows creating new properties of materials and surfaces and vary them in a wide range. Basically, modern methods are divided into three areas-the process of layer-by-layer deposition, free-standing films, and hydrogels based on polyelectrolytes. Layer-by-layer assembly of polyelectrolytes on various surfaces is a powerful technique. It allows giving surfaces new properties, for example, protect them from corrosion. Free-standing films are essential tools for the design of membranes and sensors. Hydrogels based on polyelectrolytes have recently shown their applicability in electrical and materials science. The creation of new materials and components with controlled properties can be achieved using polyelectrolytes. This review focuses on new technologies that have been developed with polyelectrolytes over the last five years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artemii S Ivanov
- Infochemistry Scientific Center of ITMO University, Lomonosova str. 9, Saint Petersburg, 191002, Russia
| | - Lyubov V Pershina
- Infochemistry Scientific Center of ITMO University, Lomonosova str. 9, Saint Petersburg, 191002, Russia
| | - Konstantin G Nikolaev
- Infochemistry Scientific Center of ITMO University, Lomonosova str. 9, Saint Petersburg, 191002, Russia
| | - Ekaterina V Skorb
- Infochemistry Scientific Center of ITMO University, Lomonosova str. 9, Saint Petersburg, 191002, Russia
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Scarel M, Marchesan S. Diketopiperazine Gels: New Horizons from the Self-Assembly of Cyclic Dipeptides. Molecules 2021; 26:3376. [PMID: 34204905 PMCID: PMC8199760 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26113376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclodipeptides (CDPs) or 2,5-diketopiperazines (DKPs) can exert a variety of biological activities and display pronounced resistance against enzymatic hydrolysis as well as a propensity towards self-assembly into gels, relative to the linear-dipeptide counterparts. They have attracted great interest in a variety of fields spanning from functional materials to drug discovery. This concise review will analyze the latest advancements in their synthesis, self-assembly into gels, and their more innovative applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Scarel
- Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, University of Trieste, Via Giorgieri 1, 34127 Trieste, Italy;
| | - Silvia Marchesan
- Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, University of Trieste, Via Giorgieri 1, 34127 Trieste, Italy;
- National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy
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