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Jeong Y, Han X, Vyas K, Irudayaraj J. Microbial β-Glucuronidase Hydrogel Beads Activate Chemotherapeutic Prodrug. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:28093-28103. [PMID: 38775441 PMCID: PMC11164065 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c02568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Bacteria-assisted chemotherapeutics have been highlighted as an alternative or supplementary approach to treating cancer. However, dynamic cancer-microbe studies at the in vitro level have remained a challenge to show the impact and effectiveness of microbial therapeutics due to the lack of relevant coculture models. Here, we demonstrate a hydrogel-based compartmentalized system for prodrug activation of a natural ingredient of licorice root, glycyrrhizin, by microbial β-glucuronidase (GUS). Hydrogel containment with Lactococcus lactis provides a favorable niche to encode GUS enzymes with excellent permeability and can serve as an independent ecosystem in the transformation of pro-apoptotic materials. Based on the confinement system of GUS expressing microbes, we quantitatively evaluated chemotherapeutic effects enhanced by microbial GUS enzyme in two dynamic coculture models in vitro (i.e., 2D monolayered cancer cells and 3D tumor spheroids). Our findings support the processes of prodrug conversion mediated by bacterial GUS enzyme which can enhance the therapeutic efficacy of a chemotherapy drug under dynamic coculture conditions. We expect our in vitro coculture platforms can be used for the evaluation of pharmacological properties and biological activity of xenobiotics as well as the potential impact of microbes on cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon Jeong
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of Illinois
at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 60801, United States
- Cancer
Center at Illinois, Carle-Illinois College
of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 60801, United States
- Biomedical
Research Center, Mills Breast Cancer Institute, Carle Foundation Hospital, Urbana, Illinois 60801, United States
| | - Xiaoxue Han
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of Illinois
at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 60801, United States
- Cancer
Center at Illinois, Carle-Illinois College
of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 60801, United States
- Biomedical
Research Center, Mills Breast Cancer Institute, Carle Foundation Hospital, Urbana, Illinois 60801, United States
| | - Khushali Vyas
- School
of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University
of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 60801, United States
| | - Joseph Irudayaraj
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of Illinois
at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 60801, United States
- Cancer
Center at Illinois, Carle-Illinois College
of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 60801, United States
- Biomedical
Research Center, Mills Breast Cancer Institute, Carle Foundation Hospital, Urbana, Illinois 60801, United States
- Carl
R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, Beckman Institute, Holonyak Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, Urbana, Illinois 60801, United States
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2
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Zhou Y, Li Q, Wu Y, Zhang W, Ding L, Ji C, Li P, Chen T, Feng L, Tang BZ, Huang X. Synergistic Brilliance: Engineered Bacteria and Nanomedicine Unite in Cancer Therapy. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2313953. [PMID: 38400833 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202313953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
Engineered bacteria are widely used in cancer treatment because live facultative/obligate anaerobes can selectively proliferate at tumor sites and reach hypoxic regions, thereby causing nutritional competition, enhancing immune responses, and producing anticancer microbial agents in situ to suppress tumor growth. Despite the unique advantages of bacteria-based cancer biotherapy, the insufficient treatment efficiency limits its application in the complete ablation of malignant tumors. The combination of nanomedicine and engineered bacteria has attracted increasing attention owing to their striking synergistic effects in cancer treatment. Engineered bacteria that function as natural vehicles can effectively deliver nanomedicines to tumor sites. Moreover, bacteria provide an opportunity to enhance nanomedicines by modulating the TME and producing substrates to support nanomedicine-mediated anticancer reactions. Nanomedicine exhibits excellent optical, magnetic, acoustic, and catalytic properties, and plays an important role in promoting bacteria-mediated biotherapies. The synergistic anticancer effects of engineered bacteria and nanomedicines in cancer therapy are comprehensively summarized in this review. Attention is paid not only to the fabrication of nanobiohybrid composites, but also to the interpromotion mechanism between engineered bacteria and nanomedicine in cancer therapy. Additionally, recent advances in engineered bacteria-synergized multimodal cancer therapies are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaofeng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, School of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, P. R. China
| | - Qianying Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, School of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, P. R. China
| | - Yuhao Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, School of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, P. R. China
| | - Wan Zhang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, P. R. China
| | - Lu Ding
- Department of Cardiology, Jiangxi Hypertension Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, P. R. China
| | - Chenlin Ji
- School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou, 310030, P. R. China
| | - Ping Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, School of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, P. R. China
| | - Tingtao Chen
- National Engineering Research Center for Bioengineering Drugs and the Technologies, Institute of Translational Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330036, P. R. China
| | - Lili Feng
- Key Laboratory of Superlight Materials and Surface Technology Ministry of Education, College of Material Sciences and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin, 150001, P. R. China
| | - Ben Zhong Tang
- School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen (CUHK-Shenzhen), Guangdong, 518172, P. R. China
| | - Xiaolin Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, School of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, P. R. China
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Wang Z, Sun W, Hua R, Wang Y, Li Y, Zhang H. Promising dawn in tumor microenvironment therapy: engineering oral bacteria. Int J Oral Sci 2024; 16:24. [PMID: 38472176 DOI: 10.1038/s41368-024-00282-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite decades of research, cancer continues to be a major global health concern. The human mouth appears to be a multiplicity of local environments communicating with other organs and causing diseases via microbes. Nowadays, the role of oral microbes in the development and progression of cancer has received increasing scrutiny. At the same time, bioengineering technology and nanotechnology is growing rapidly, in which the physiological activities of natural bacteria are modified to improve the therapeutic efficiency of cancers. These engineered bacteria were transformed to achieve directed genetic reprogramming, selective functional reorganization and precise control. In contrast to endotoxins produced by typical genetically modified bacteria, oral flora exhibits favorable biosafety characteristics. To outline the current cognitions upon oral microbes, engineered microbes and human cancers, related literatures were searched and reviewed based on the PubMed database. We focused on a number of oral microbes and related mechanisms associated with the tumor microenvironment, which involve in cancer occurrence and development. Whether engineering oral bacteria can be a possible application of cancer therapy is worth consideration. A deeper understanding of the relationship between engineered oral bacteria and cancer therapy may enhance our knowledge of tumor pathogenesis thus providing new insights and strategies for cancer prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zifei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Research of Anhui Province, College & Hospital of Stomatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Wansu Sun
- Department of Stomatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Ruixue Hua
- Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Research of Anhui Province, College & Hospital of Stomatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Yuanyin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Research of Anhui Province, College & Hospital of Stomatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Yang Li
- Department of Genetics, School of Life Science, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
| | - Hengguo Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Research of Anhui Province, College & Hospital of Stomatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
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4
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Dehbashi S, Tahmasebi H, Alikhani MY, Shahbazi MA, Arabestani MR. Staphopain mediated virulence and antibiotic resistance alteration in co-infection of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa: an animal model. BMC Biotechnol 2024; 24:10. [PMID: 38439037 PMCID: PMC10913572 DOI: 10.1186/s12896-024-00840-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Polymicrobial communities lead to worsen the wound infections, due to mixed biofilms, increased antibiotic resistance, and altered virulence production. Promising approaches, including enzymes, may overcome the complicated condition of polymicrobial infections. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate Staphopain A-mediated virulence and resistance alteration in an animal model of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa co-infection. S. aureus and P. aeruginosa were co-cultured on the L-929 cell line and wound infection in an animal model. Then, recombinant staphopain A was purified and used to treat mono- and co-infections. Following the treatment, changes in virulence factors and resistance were investigated through phenotypic methods and RT-PCR. Staphopain A resulted in a notable reduction in the viability of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa. The biofilm formed in the wound infection in both animal model and cell culture was disrupted remarkably. Moreover, the biofilm-encoding genes, quorum sensing regulating genes, and virulence factors (hemolysin and pyocyanin) controlled by QS were down-regulated in both microorganisms. Furthermore, the resistance to vancomycin and doripenem decreased following treatment with staphopain A. According to this study, staphopain A might promote wound healing and cure co-infection. It seems to be a promising agent to combine with antibiotics to overcome hard-to-cure infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanaz Dehbashi
- Department of Laboratory Sciences, Varastegan Institute of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Hamed Tahmasebi
- School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Mohammad Yousef Alikhani
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713, Groningen, AV, The Netherlands
| | - Mohammad Reza Arabestani
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran.
- Infectious disease Research center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran.
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5
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Arboleda-García A, Alarcon-Ruiz I, Boada-Acosta L, Boada Y, Vignoni A, Jantus-Lewintre E. Advancements in synthetic biology-based bacterial cancer therapy: A modular design approach. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2023; 190:104088. [PMID: 37541537 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2023.104088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic biology aims to program living bacteria cells with artificial genetic circuits for user-defined functions, transforming them into powerful tools with numerous applications in various fields, including oncology. Cancer treatments have serious side effects on patients due to the systemic action of the drugs involved. To address this, new systems that provide localized antitumoral action while minimizing damage to healthy tissues are required. Bacteria, often considered pathogenic agents, have been used as cancer treatments since the early 20th century. Advances in genetic engineering, synthetic biology, microbiology, and oncology have improved bacterial therapies, making them safer and more effective. Here we propose six modules for a successful synthetic biology-based bacterial cancer therapy, the modules include Payload, Release, Tumor-targeting, Biocontainment, Memory, and Genetic Circuit Stability Module. These will ensure antitumor activity, safety for the environment and patient, prevent bacterial colonization, maintain cell stability, and prevent loss or defunctionalization of the genetic circuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Arboleda-García
- Systems Biology and Biosystems Control Lab, Instituto de Automática e Informática Industrial, Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain
| | - Ivan Alarcon-Ruiz
- Gene Regulation in Cardiovascular Remodeling and Inflammation Group, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERCV), Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lissette Boada-Acosta
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Cáncer, CIBERONC, Madrid, Spain; TRIAL Mixed Unit, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe-Fundación Investigación del Hospital General Universitario de Valencia, Valencia, Spain; Molecular Oncology Laboratory, Fundación Investigación del Hospital General Universitario de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Yadira Boada
- Systems Biology and Biosystems Control Lab, Instituto de Automática e Informática Industrial, Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain
| | - Alejandro Vignoni
- Systems Biology and Biosystems Control Lab, Instituto de Automática e Informática Industrial, Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain.
| | - Eloisa Jantus-Lewintre
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Cáncer, CIBERONC, Madrid, Spain; TRIAL Mixed Unit, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe-Fundación Investigación del Hospital General Universitario de Valencia, Valencia, Spain; Molecular Oncology Laboratory, Fundación Investigación del Hospital General Universitario de Valencia, Valencia, Spain; Department of Biotechnology, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
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6
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Jafari B, Reza Bahrami A, Matin MM. Targeted bacteria-mediated therapy of mouse colorectal cancer using baicalin, a natural glucuronide compound, and E. coli overexpressing β-glucuronidase. Int J Pharm 2023:123099. [PMID: 37271252 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 05/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The side effects of common chemotherapeutic drugs that damage healthy tissues account for one of the most important problems in cancer research that needs careful addressing. Bacterial-Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy (BDEPT) is a promising strategy that uses bacteria to direct a converting enzyme to the tumor site and activate a systemically injected prodrug selectively within the tumor; so that the side effects of the therapy would significantly decrease. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of baicalin, a natural compound, as a glucuronide prodrug in association with an engineered strain of Escherichia coli DH5α harboring the pRSETB-lux/βG plasmid in a mouse model of colorectal cancer. E. coli DH5α-lux/βG was designed to emit luminescence and overexpress the β-glucuronidase. Unlike the non-engineered bacteria, E. coli DH5α-lux/βG showed the ability to activate baicalin, and the cytotoxic effects of baicalin on the C26 cell line were increased in the presence of E. coli DH5α-lux/βG. Analyzing the tissue homogenates of mice bearing C26 tumors inoculated with E. coli DH5α-lux/βG indicated the specific accumulation and multiplication of bacteria in the tumor tissues. While both baicalin and E. coli DH5α-lux/βG could inhibit tumor growth as monotherapy, an enhanced inhibition was observed when animals were subjected to combination therapy. Moreover, no significant side effects were observed after histological investigation. The results of this study indicate that baicalin has the capability of being used as a suitable prodrug in the BDEPT, however further research is required before it can be applied in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahareh Jafari
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Ahmad Reza Bahrami
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran; Industrial Biotechnology Research Group, Institute of Biotechnology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Maryam M Matin
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran; Novel Diagnostics and Therapeutics Research Group, Institute of Biotechnology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.
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7
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Liu Y, Niu L, Li N, Wang Y, Liu M, Su X, Bao X, Yin B, Shen S. Bacterial-Mediated Tumor Therapy: Old Treatment in a New Context. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2205641. [PMID: 36908053 PMCID: PMC10131876 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202205641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Targeted therapy and immunotherapy have brought hopes for precision cancer treatment. However, complex physiological barriers and tumor immunosuppression result in poor efficacy, side effects, and resistance to antitumor therapies. Bacteria-mediated antitumor therapy provides new options to address these challenges. Thanks to their special characteristics, bacteria have excellent ability to destroy tumor cells from the inside and induce innate and adaptive antitumor immune responses. Furthermore, bacterial components, including bacterial vesicles, spores, toxins, metabolites, and other active substances, similarly inherit their unique targeting properties and antitumor capabilities. Bacteria and their accessory products can even be reprogrammed to produce and deliver antitumor agents according to clinical needs. This review first discusses the role of different bacteria in the development of tumorigenesis and the latest advances in bacteria-based delivery platforms and the existing obstacles for application. Moreover, the prospect and challenges of clinical transformation of engineered bacteria are also summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury Repairand Regeneration of Ministry of EducationOrthopaedic Department of Tongji Hospital, The Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Nano ScienceTongji University School of MedicineShanghai200092P. R. China
- Pharmacy Department and Center for Medical Research and InnovationShanghai Pudong HospitalFudan University Pudong Medical CenterShanghai201399China
| | - Lili Niu
- Central LaboratoryFirst Affiliated HospitalInstitute (College) of Integrative MedicineDalian Medical UniversityDalian116021China
| | - Nannan Li
- Central LaboratoryFirst Affiliated HospitalInstitute (College) of Integrative MedicineDalian Medical UniversityDalian116021China
| | - Yang Wang
- Central LaboratoryFirst Affiliated HospitalInstitute (College) of Integrative MedicineDalian Medical UniversityDalian116021China
| | - Mingyang Liu
- Department of Surgical Oncology and General SurgeryThe First Hospital of China Medical University155 North Nanjing Street, Heping DistrictShenyang110001China
| | - Xiaomin Su
- Central LaboratoryFirst Affiliated HospitalInstitute (College) of Integrative MedicineDalian Medical UniversityDalian116021China
| | - Xuhui Bao
- Institute for Therapeutic Cancer VaccinesFudan University Pudong Medical CenterShanghai201399China
| | - Bo Yin
- Institute for Therapeutic Cancer Vaccines and Department of OncologyFudan University Pudong Medical CenterShanghai201399China
| | - Shun Shen
- Pharmacy Department and Center for Medical Research and InnovationShanghai Pudong HospitalFudan University Pudong Medical CenterShanghai201399China
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8
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Li Y, Rong Z, Li Z, Cui H, Li J, Xu XW. Structural insights into catalytical capability for CPT11 hydrolysis and substrate specificity of a novel marine microbial carboxylesterase, E93. Front Microbiol 2023; 13:1081094. [PMID: 36756200 PMCID: PMC9901791 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1081094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction CPT11 (Irinotecan; 7-ethyl-10-[4-(1-piperidino)-1-piperidino] carbonyloxycamptothecin) is an important camptothecin-based broad-spectrum anticancer prodrug. The activation of its warhead, SN38 (7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin), requires hydrolysis by carboxylesterases. NPC (7-ethyl-10-[4-(1-piperidino)-1-amino] carbonyloxycamptothecin) is a metabolic derivative of CPT11 and is difficult to be hydrolyzed by human carboxylesterase. Microbial carboxylesterase with capability on both CPT11 and NPC hydrolysis is rarely reported. A marine microbial carboxylesterase, E93, was identified to hydrolyze both substrates in this study. This enzyme was an appropriate subject for uncovering the catalytic mechanism of carboxylesterases to CPT11 and NPC hydrolysis. Methods X-ray diffraction method was applied to obtain high-resolution structure of E93. Molecular docking was adopted to analyze the interaction of E93 with p-NP (p-nitrophenyl), CPT11, and NPC substrates. Mutagenesis and enzymatic assay were adopted to verify the binding pattern of substrates. Results Three core regions (Region A, B, and C) of the catalytic pocket were identified and their functions on substrates specificity were validated via mutagenesis assays. The Region A was involved in the binding with the alcohol group of all tested substrates. The size and hydrophobicity of the region determined the binding affinity. The Region B accommodated the acyl group of p-NP and CPT11 substrates. The polarity of this region determined the catalytic preference to both substrates. The Region C specifically accommodated the acyl group of NPC. The interaction from the acidic residue, E428, contributed to the binding of E93 with NPC. Discussion The study analyzed both unique and conserved structures of the pocket in E93, for the first time demonstrating the discrepancy of substrate-enzyme interaction between CPT11 and NPC. It also expanded the knowledge about the substrate specificity and potential application of microbial Family VII carboxylesterases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Li
- School of Oceanography, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan, China,Key Laboratory of Marine Ecosystem Dynamics, Ministry of Natural Resources and Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhen Rong
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecosystem Dynamics, Ministry of Natural Resources and Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhengyang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Henglin Cui
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Jixi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Fudan University, Shanghai, China,*Correspondence: Jixi Li,
| | - Xue-Wei Xu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecosystem Dynamics, Ministry of Natural Resources and Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou, China,Xue-Wei Xu,
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9
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A rapid screening platform to coculture bacteria within tumor spheroids. Nat Protoc 2022; 17:2216-2239. [PMID: 35906291 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-022-00723-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The prevalence of tumor-colonizing bacteria along with advances in synthetic biology are leading to a new generation of living microbial cancer therapies. Because many bacterial systems can be engineered to recombinantly produce therapeutics within tumors, simple and high-throughput experimental platforms are needed to screen the large collections of bacteria candidates and characterize their interactions with cancer cells. Here, we describe a protocol to selectively grow bacteria within the core of tumor spheroids, allowing for their continuous and parallel profiling in physiologically relevant conditions. Specifically, tumor spheroids are incubated with bacteria in a 96-well low-adhesion plate followed by a series of washing steps and an antibiotic selection protocol to confine bacterial growth within the hypoxic and necrotic core of tumor spheroids. This bacteria spheroid coculture (BSCC) system is stable for over 2 weeks, does not require specialized equipment and is compatible with time-lapse microscopy, commercial staining assays and histology that uniquely enable analysis of growth kinetics, viability and spatial distribution of both cellular populations, respectively. We show that the procedure is applicable to multiple tumor cell types and bacterial species by varying protocol parameters and is validated by using animal models. The BSCC platform will allow the study of bacteria-tumor interactions in a continuous manner and facilitate the rapid development of engineered microbial therapies.
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10
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Xie YJ, Huang M, Li D, Hou JC, Liang HH, Nasim AA, Huang JM, Xie C, Leung ELH, Fan XX. Bacteria-based nanodrug for anticancer therapy. Pharmacol Res 2022; 182:106282. [PMID: 35662630 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria-based immunotherapy has become a promising strategy to induce innate and adaptive responses for fighting cancer. The advantages of bacteriolytic tumor therapy mainly lie in stimulation of innate immunity and colonization of some bacteria targeting the tumor microenvironment (TME). These bacteria have cytotoxic proteins and immune modulating factors that can effectively restrain tumor growth. However, cancer is a multifactorial disease and single therapy is typically unable to eradicate tumors. Rapid progress has been made in combining bacteria with nanotechnology. Using the nanomolecular properties of bacterial products for tumor treatment preserves many features from the original bacteria while providing some unique advantages. Nano-bacterial therapy can enhance permeability and retention of drugs, increase the tolerability of the targeted drugs, promote the release of immune cell mediators, and induce immunogenic cell death pathways. In addition, combining nano-bacterial mediated antitumor therapeutic systems with modern therapy is an effective strategy for overcoming existing barriers in antitumor treatment and can achieve satisfactory therapeutic efficacy. Overall, exploring the immune antitumor characteristics of adjuvant clinical treatment with bacteria can provide potential efficacious treatment strategies for combatting cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Jia Xie
- Dr. Neher's Biophysics Laboratory for Innovative Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China
| | - Min Huang
- Dr. Neher's Biophysics Laboratory for Innovative Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China
| | - Dan Li
- Beijing Wante'er Biological Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., No. 32 Yard, East 2nd Road, Yanqi Economic Development Zone, Huairou District, Beijing, China
| | - Jin-Cai Hou
- Beijing Wante'er Biological Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., No. 32 Yard, East 2nd Road, Yanqi Economic Development Zone, Huairou District, Beijing, China
| | - Hai-Hai Liang
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Ali Adnan Nasim
- Dr. Neher's Biophysics Laboratory for Innovative Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China
| | - Ju-Min Huang
- Dr. Neher's Biophysics Laboratory for Innovative Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China
| | - Chun Xie
- Dr. Neher's Biophysics Laboratory for Innovative Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China
| | - Elaine Lai-Han Leung
- Dr. Neher's Biophysics Laboratory for Innovative Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China
| | - Xing-Xing Fan
- Dr. Neher's Biophysics Laboratory for Innovative Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China.
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11
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Hu X, Zhou W, Pi R, Zhao X, Wang W. Genetically modified cancer vaccines: Current status and future prospects. Med Res Rev 2022; 42:1492-1517. [PMID: 35235212 DOI: 10.1002/med.21882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2020] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Vaccines can stimulate the immune system to protect individuals from infectious diseases. Moreover, vaccines have also been applied to the prevention and treatment of cancers. Due to advances in genetic engineering technology, cancer vaccines could be genetically modified to increase antitumor efficacy. Various genes could be inserted into cells to boost the immune response, such as cytokines, T cell costimulatory molecules, tumor-associated antigens, and tumor-specific antigens. Genetically modified cancer vaccines utilize innate and adaptive immune responses to induce durable antineoplastic capacity and prevent the recurrence. This review will discuss the major approaches used to develop genetically modified cancer vaccines and explore recent advances to increase the understanding of engineered cancer vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyi Hu
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Development and Related Disease of Women and Children Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, P. R. China.,State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Weilin Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Ruyu Pi
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Development and Related Disease of Women and Children Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, P. R. China.,State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Xia Zhao
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Development and Related Disease of Women and Children Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, P. R. China.,State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, P. R. China
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12
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Chiang CJ, Hong YH. In situ delivery of biobutyrate by probiotic Escherichia coli for cancer therapy. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18172. [PMID: 34518590 PMCID: PMC8438071 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97457-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Butyrate has a bioactive function to reduce carcinogenesis. To achieve targeted cancer therapy, this study developed bacterial cancer therapy (BCT) with butyrate as a payload. By metabolic engineering, Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) was reprogrammed to synthesize butyrate (referred to as biobutyrate) and designated EcN-BUT. The adopted strategy includes construction of a synthetic pathway for biobutyrate and the rational design of central metabolism to increase the production of biobutyrate at the expense of acetate. With glucose, EcN-BUT produced primarily biobutyrate under the hypoxic condition. Furthermore, human colorectal cancer cell was administrated with the produced biobutyrate. It caused the cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase and induced the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway independent of p53. In the tumor-bearing mice, the injected EcN-BUT exhibited tumor-specific colonization and significantly reduced the tumor volume by 70%. Overall, this study opens a new avenue for BCT based on biobutyrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung-Jen Chiang
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, China Medical University, No. 91, Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung, Taiwan, 40402.
| | - Yan-Hong Hong
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Feng Chia University, Taichung, Taiwan, 40724
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13
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Abstract
The natural world has provided a host of materials and inspiration for the field of nanomedicine. By taking design cues from naturally occurring systems, the nanoengineering of advanced biomimetic platforms has significantly accelerated over the past decade. In particular, the biomimicry of bacteria, with their motility, taxis, immunomodulation, and overall dynamic host interactions, has elicited substantial interest and opened up exciting avenues of research. More recently, advancements in genetic engineering have given way to more complex and elegant systems with tunable control characteristics. Furthermore, bacterial derivatives such as membrane ghosts, extracellular vesicles, spores, and toxins have proven advantageous for use in nanotherapeutic applications, as they preserve many of the features from the original bacteria while also offering distinct advantages. Overall, bacteria-inspired nanomedicines can be employed in a range of therapeutic settings, from payload delivery to immunotherapy, and have proven successful in combatting both cancer and infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Holay
- Department of NanoEngineering, Chemical Engineering Program, and Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Zhongyuan Guo
- Department of NanoEngineering, Chemical Engineering Program, and Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jessica Pihl
- Department of NanoEngineering, Chemical Engineering Program, and Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jiyoung Heo
- Department of NanoEngineering, Chemical Engineering Program, and Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Joon Ho Park
- Department of NanoEngineering, Chemical Engineering Program, and Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Ronnie H. Fang
- Department of NanoEngineering, Chemical Engineering Program, and Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Liangfang Zhang
- Department of NanoEngineering, Chemical Engineering Program, and Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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14
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Chiang CJ, Huang PH. Metabolic engineering of probiotic Escherichia coli for cytolytic therapy of tumors. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5853. [PMID: 33712706 PMCID: PMC7971005 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-85372-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial cancer therapy was developed using probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) for medical intervention of colorectal cancer. EcN was armed with HlyE, a small cytotoxic protein, under the control of the araBAD promoter (PBAD). The intrinsic limitation of PBAD for the gene expression is known to be negated by glucose and afflicted with all-or-nothing induction in host bacteria. This issue was addressed by metabolic engineering of EcN to uncouple the glucose-mediated control circuit and the L-arabinose transport-induction loop and to block L-arabinose catabolism. As a result, the reprogrammed strain (designated EcNe) enabled efficient expression of HlyE in a temporal control manner. The HlyE production was insensitive to glucose and reached a saturated level in response to L-arabinose at 30-50 μM. Moreover, the administrated EcNe exhibited tumor-specific colonization with the tumor-to-organ ratio of 106:1. Equipped with HlyE, EcNe significantly caused tumor regression in mice xenografted with human colorectal cancer cells. Overall, this study proposes a new strategy for the bacteria-mediated delivery of therapeutic proteins to tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung-Jen Chiang
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, China Medical University, No. 91, Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung, 40402, Taiwan.
| | - Po-Han Huang
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, China Medical University, No. 91, Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung, 40402, Taiwan
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15
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Lou X, Chen Z, He Z, Sun M, Sun J. Bacteria-Mediated Synergistic Cancer Therapy: Small Microbiome Has a Big Hope. NANO-MICRO LETTERS 2021; 13:37. [PMID: 34138211 PMCID: PMC8187705 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-020-00560-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The use of bacteria to specifically migrate to cancerous tissue and elicit an antitumor immune response provides a promising platform against cancer with significantly high potency. With dozens of clinical trials underway, some researchers hold the following views: "humans are nearing the first commercial live bacteria therapeutic." However, the facultative anaerobe Salmonella typhimurium VNP20009, which is particularly safe and shows anticancer effects in preclinical studies, had failed in a phase I clinical trial due to low tumor regression and undesired dose-dependent side effects. This is almost certain to disappoint people's inflated expectations, but it is noted that recent state-of-the-art research has turned attention to bacteria-mediated synergistic cancer therapy (BMSCT). In this review, the foundation of bacteria-mediated bio-therapy is outlined. Then, we summarize the potential benefits and challenges of bacterial bio-therapy in combination with different traditional anticancer therapeutic modalities (chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species therapy, immunotherapy, or prodrug-activating therapy) in the past 5 years. Next, we discuss multiple administration routes of BMSCT, highlighting potentiated antitumor responses and avoidance of potential side effects. Finally, we envision the opportunities and challenges for BMSCT development, with the purpose of inspiring medicinal scientists to widely utilize the microbiome approach in patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Lou
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhichao Chen
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhonggui He
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengchi Sun
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, Liaoning, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jin Sun
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, Liaoning, People's Republic of China.
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Sawant SS, Patil SM, Gupta V, Kunda NK. Microbes as Medicines: Harnessing the Power of Bacteria in Advancing Cancer Treatment. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21207575. [PMID: 33066447 PMCID: PMC7589870 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21207575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2020] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Conventional anti-cancer therapy involves the use of chemical chemotherapeutics and radiation and are often non-specific in action. The development of drug resistance and the inability of the drug to penetrate the tumor cells has been a major pitfall in current treatment. This has led to the investigation of alternative anti-tumor therapeutics possessing greater specificity and efficacy. There is a significant interest in exploring the use of microbes as potential anti-cancer medicines. The inherent tropism of the bacteria for hypoxic tumor environment and its ability to be genetically engineered as a vector for gene and drug therapy has led to the development of bacteria as a potential weapon against cancer. In this review, we will introduce bacterial anti-cancer therapy with an emphasis on the various mechanisms involved in tumor targeting and tumor suppression. The bacteriotherapy approaches in conjunction with the conventional cancer therapy can be effective in designing novel cancer therapies. We focus on the current progress achieved in bacterial cancer therapies that show potential in advancing existing cancer treatment options and help attain positive clinical outcomes with minimal systemic side-effects.
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17
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Engineering the gut microbiota to treat chronic diseases. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:7657-7671. [PMID: 32696297 PMCID: PMC7484268 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10771-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Gut microbes play vital roles in host health and disease. A number of commensal bacteria have been used as vectors for genetic engineering to create living therapeutics. This review highlights recent advances in engineering gut bacteria for the treatment of chronic diseases such as metabolic diseases, cancer, inflammatory bowel diseases, and autoimmune disorders. KEY POINTS: • Bacterial homing to tumors has been exploited to deliver therapeutics in mice models. • Engineered bacteria show promise in mouse models of metabolic diseases. • Few engineered bacterial treatments have advanced to clinical studies.
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18
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Afkhami-Poostchi A, Mashreghi M, Iranshahi M, Matin MM. Use of a genetically engineered E. coli overexpressing β-glucuronidase accompanied by glycyrrhizic acid, a natural and anti-inflammatory agent, for directed treatment of colon carcinoma in a mouse model. Int J Pharm 2020; 579:119159. [PMID: 32081798 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (BDEPT), is an emerging alternative directed and tumor-specific approach. The basis of this method is the conversion of a non-toxic prodrug by a bacterial enzyme to a toxic drug within the tumor-microenvironment (TME). In the present study, the therapeutic efficacy of BDEPT was investigated based on the ability of Escherichia coli DH5α-lux/βG in activation of glycyrrhizic acid (GL), a natural and non-toxic compound purified from licorice, to glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) only in TME. To do so, the anti-bacterial effects of GL on bacteria and the cytotoxic effects of the produced GA on survival rate of CT26 mouse colon carcinoma cells were evaluated. The IC50 values of the produced GA and cisplatin were determined as 210 μM and 100 μM, respectively. Comparing these values to GL treatment (1305 μM) indicates that bacteria could have efficiently activated GL to GA to inhibit the growth of tumor cells. Afterward, the anti-cancer effects of bacteria used in combination with GL was investigated in a mouse model of colon carcinoma. Results were indicative of targeted homing and even proliferation of luminescent bacteria in TME. Moreover, combined treatment greatly inhibited tumor growth. Histopathological analysis of dissected tissues also demonstrated increased apoptosis rate in tumor cells after combined treatment and interestingly, showed no obvious damage to the spleen and liver of treated mice. Accordingly, this BDEPT approach could be considered as an effective alternative tumor-specific therapy utilizing prodrug-activating enzymes expressing from tumor-targeting bacteria to allow the development of new tumor-specific pharmacotherapy protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin Afkhami-Poostchi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mansour Mashreghi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran; Industrial Biotechnology Research Group, Institute of Biotechnology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran; Center of Nano Research, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mehrdad Iranshahi
- Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Maryam M Matin
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran; Novel Diagnostics and Therapeutics Research Group, Institute of Biotechnology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.
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19
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Williams EM, Rich MH, Mowday AM, Ashoorzadeh A, Copp JN, Guise CP, Anderson RF, Flanagan JU, Smaill JB, Patterson AV, Ackerley DF. Engineering Escherichia coli NfsB To Activate a Hypoxia-Resistant Analogue of the PET Probe EF5 To Enable Non-Invasive Imaging during Enzyme Prodrug Therapy. Biochemistry 2019; 58:3700-3710. [PMID: 31403283 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.9b00376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (GDEPT) uses tumor-tropic vectors to deliver prodrug-converting enzymes such as nitroreductases specifically to the tumor environment. The nitroreductase NfsB from Escherichia coli (NfsB_Ec) has been a particular focal point for GDEPT and over the past 25 years has been the subject of several engineering studies seeking to improve catalysis of prodrug substrates. To facilitate clinical development, there is also a need to enable effective non-invasive imaging capabilities. SN33623, a 5-nitroimidazole analogue of 2-nitroimidazole hypoxia probe EF5, has potential for PET imaging exogenously delivered nitroreductases without generating confounding background due to tumor hypoxia. However, we show here that SN33623 is a poor substrate for NfsB_Ec. To address this, we used assay-guided sequence and structure analysis to identify two conserved residues that block SN33623 activation in NfsB_Ec and close homologues. Introduction of the rational substitutions F70A and F108Y into NfsB_Ec conferred high levels of SN33623 activity and enabled specific labeling of E. coli expressing the engineered enzyme. Serendipitously, the F70A and F108Y substitutions also substantially improved activity with the anticancer prodrug CB1954 and the 5-nitroimidazole antibiotic prodrug metronidazole, which is a potential biosafety agent for targeted ablation of nitroreductase-expressing vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsie M Williams
- School of Biological Sciences , Victoria University of Wellington , Wellington 6012 , New Zealand
| | - Michelle H Rich
- School of Biological Sciences , Victoria University of Wellington , Wellington 6012 , New Zealand
| | - Alexandra M Mowday
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences , The University of Auckland , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand
| | - Amir Ashoorzadeh
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences , The University of Auckland , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand
| | - Janine N Copp
- School of Biological Sciences , Victoria University of Wellington , Wellington 6012 , New Zealand
| | - Christopher P Guise
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences , The University of Auckland , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand
| | - Robert F Anderson
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences , The University of Auckland , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand
| | - Jack U Flanagan
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences , The University of Auckland , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand
| | - Jeff B Smaill
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences , The University of Auckland , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand
| | - Adam V Patterson
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences , The University of Auckland , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand
| | - David F Ackerley
- School of Biological Sciences , Victoria University of Wellington , Wellington 6012 , New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery , Auckland 1023 , New Zealand
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20
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Xie S, Chen M, Song X, Zhang Z, Zhang Z, Chen Z, Li X. Bacterial microbots for acid-labile release of hybrid micelles to promote the synergistic antitumor efficacy. Acta Biomater 2018; 78:198-210. [PMID: 30036720 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria have inherent properties of self-propelled navigation and specific infiltration into solid tumors. In the current study, we investigate a novel type of bacterial microbots for delivery of hybrid micelles to promote the synergistic antitumor efficacy. Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) is used as a bacterial carrier to immobilize amphiphilic copolymers through acid-labile 2-propionic-3-methylmaleic anhydride (CDM) linkers. Doxorubicin (DOX) and α-tocopheryl succinate (TOS) are conjugated with poly(ethylene glycol) through disulfide linkers to obtain amphiphilic promicelle polymers (PMTOS and PMDOX). Tetrazine and norbornene terminals are grafted on EcN and PMTOS/PMDOX copolymers, respectively, and the mild and site-specific bioorthogonal reaction between them maintains the viability, motion ability, and tumor accumulation capability of the conjugated EcN. The PMTOS/PMDOX copolymers are released from bacterial microbots in response to the slightly acidic tumor microenvironment, followed by in situ formation of these copolymers as hybrid micelles (MD/T). The self-assembled micelles from PMTOS/PMDOX with a ratio of 1:2 demonstrate the most significant synergistic efficacy, and the released MD/T hybrid micelles exhibit cellular uptake efficiency, glutathione (GSH)-sensitive drug release, and cytotoxicities similar to those exhibited by micelles prepared by solvent evaporation. Because of the consecutive process of the self-propelling nature of bacteria and preferential accumulation of EcN in tumors, in situ formation of MD/T hybrid micelles, and intracellular drug release, bacterial microbots have shown remarkable antitumor efficacy with regard to animal survival, tumor growth, and apoptosis induction in tumor cells. Therefore, we demonstrate a feasible strategy for the construction of bacterial microbots to achieve tumor accumulation and on-demand release of multiple therapeutic agents for synergistic antitumor efficacy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Challenges remain in the targeted delivery of nanoparticles to solid tumors and the realization of synergistic efficacy in cancer chemotherapy. In the current study, we explore a novel class of bacterial microbots to load, deliver, and release hybrid micelles. Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) is used as a bacterial carrier to immobilize amphiphilic copolymers through acid-labile linkers, and the released copolymers are self-assembled into micelles. The resulting bacterial microbots integrate self-propelling bacteria and self-assembling amphiphilic polymers into micelles and realize pH-responsive release of promicelle polymers from bacterial microbots and glutathione-responsive intracellular release of drugs. A synergistic antitumor efficacy is achieved using hybrid micelles, which release both doxorubicin and α-tocopheryl succinate to display toxicities in the nucleus and mitochondria, respectively.
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Cancer Immunotherapy: Priming the Host Immune Response with Live Attenuated Salmonella enterica. J Immunol Res 2018; 2018:2984247. [PMID: 30302344 PMCID: PMC6158935 DOI: 10.1155/2018/2984247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, cancer immunotherapy has undergone great advances because of our understanding of the immune response and the mechanisms through which tumor cells evade it. A century after the first immunotherapy attempt based on bacterial products described by William Coley, the use of live attenuated bacterial vectors has become a promising alternative in the fight against cancer. This review describes the role of live attenuated Salmonella enterica as an oncolytic and immunotherapeutic agent, due to its high affinity for tumor tissue and its ability to activate innate and adaptive antitumor immune response. Furthermore, its potential use as delivery system of tumor antigens and immunomodulatory molecules that induce tumor regression is also reviewed.
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22
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In situ biomolecule production by bacteria; a synthetic biology approach to medicine. J Control Release 2018; 275:217-228. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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23
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Lee EB, Lim HD, You SH, Cheong DE, Kim GJ. Conditional constitutive expression system of a drug protein in vivo by positive feedback loop using an inducer-independent artificial transcription factor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2018; 495:2390-2395. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.12.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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24
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Doxorubicin-conjugated Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 swimmers to achieve tumor targeting and responsive drug release. J Control Release 2017; 268:390-399. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2017.10.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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25
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Lehouritis P, Hogan G, Tangney M. Designer bacteria as intratumoural enzyme biofactories. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2017; 118:8-23. [PMID: 28916496 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2017.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (BDEPT) is an emerging form of treatment for cancer. It is a biphasic variant of gene therapy in which a bacterium, armed with an enzyme that can convert an inert prodrug into a cytotoxic compound, induces tumour cell death following tumour-specific prodrug activation. BDEPT combines the innate ability of bacteria to selectively proliferate in tumours, with the capacity of prodrugs to undergo contained, compartmentalised conversion into active metabolites in vivo. Although BDEPT has undergone clinical testing, it has received limited clinical exposure, and has yet to achieve regulatory approval. In this article, we review BDEPT from the system designer's perspective, and provide detailed commentary on how the designer should strategize its development de novo. We report on contemporary advancements in this field which aim to enhance BDEPT in terms of safety and efficacy. Finally, we discuss clinical and regulatory barriers facing BDEPT, and propose promising approaches through which these hurdles may best be tackled.
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26
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Murphy C, Rettedal E, Lehouritis P, Devoy C, Tangney M. Intratumoural production of TNFα by bacteria mediates cancer therapy. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180034. [PMID: 28662099 PMCID: PMC5491124 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic administration of the highly potent anticancer therapeutic, tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) induces high levels of toxicity and is responsible for serious side effects. Consequently, tumour targeting is required in order to confine this toxicity within the locality of the tumour. Bacteria have a natural capacity to grow within tumours and deliver therapeutic molecules in a controlled fashion. The non-pathogenic E. coli strain MG1655 was investigated as a tumour targeting system in order to produce TNFα specifically within murine tumours. In vivo bioluminescence imaging studies and ex vivo immunofluorescence analysis demonstrated rapid targeting dynamics and prolonged survival, replication and spread of this bacterial platform within tumours. An engineered TNFα producing construct deployed in mouse models via either intra-tumoural (i.t.) or intravenous (i.v.) administration facilitated robust TNFα production, as evidenced by ELISA of tumour extracts. Tumour growth was impeded in three subcutaneous murine tumour models (CT26 colon, RENCA renal, and TRAMP prostate) as evidenced by tumour volume and survival analyses. A pattern of pro-inflammatory cytokine induction was observed in tumours of treated mice vs. controls. Mice remained healthy throughout experiments. This study indicates the therapeutic efficacy and safety of TNFα expressing bacteria in vivo, highlighting the potential of non-pathogenic bacteria as a platform for restricting the activity of highly potent cancer agents to tumours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carola Murphy
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | | | - Panos Lehouritis
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Ciarán Devoy
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- SynBioCentre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Mark Tangney
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- SynBioCentre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- * E-mail:
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27
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Lapponi MJ, Rivero CW, Zinni MA, Britos CN, Trelles JA. New developments in nucleoside analogues biosynthesis: A review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2016.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Spontaneous regression of tumour and the role of microbial infection--possibilities for cancer treatment. Anticancer Drugs 2016; 27:269-77. [PMID: 26813865 PMCID: PMC4777220 DOI: 10.1097/cad.0000000000000337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
This review deals with the role of microorganisms in spontaneous regression of a tumour. Spontaneous cancer regression is a phenomenon that has been described for many centuries. One of the most well known methods of inducing spontaneous regression of cancer is the application of Coley's toxin (heat-killed Streptococcus pyogenes and Serratia marcescens), which has been used for the successful treatment of sarcomas, carcinomas, lymphomas, myelomas and melanomas. In clinical practice, the use of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccine for the treatment of superficial urinary bladder cancer is the most common instance of the application of microorganisms for the treatment of cancer. This review provides further information on other tested bacteria--Clostridium spp., Bifidobacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp. and Salmonella spp.--in this field of study. Among new age methods, bactofection, alternative gene therapy, combination bacteriolytic therapy and bacteria-directed enzyme prodrug therapy are some of the potential cancer treatment modalities that use microorganisms. We have also provided information about the interconnection among microorganisms, immune system response, and the possible mechanisms involved in the spontaneous regression of tumours.
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29
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Elmes RBP. Bioreductive fluorescent imaging agents: applications to tumour hypoxia. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:8935-56. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cc01037g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The development of new optical chemosensors for various reductases presents an ideal approach to visualise areas of tissue hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B. P. Elmes
- Department of Chemistry
- Maynooth University
- National University of Ireland
- Maynooth
- Ireland
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Abstract
Cancer is one of the most dreaded diseases in humans and most common cause of death in twenty-first century. New cancer therapies are urgently required because of the existing pharmacological side effects of the conventional chemotherapy, radiation, or surgery. Newer modalities such as cancer vaccines and biological therapies are proving very helpful in the treatment of cancer along with the conventional therapies. The success of these novel cancer therapies is attributed to their lesser toxicity and the specific killing of the cancer cells. Bacterial therapy for cancer has been recognized a century ago. Live, attenuated, or genetically modified obligate or facultative anaerobic bacterial species exhibit the inherent property of colonizing the tumors and are capable of multiplying selectively inside the tumors, thereby inhibiting cancerous growths. The bacteria and their spores are used in the target specific therapies, delivering the prodrugs and the various proteins to the tumors. Albeit bacterial treatment of cancer is providing new perspective in the treatment of disease, the use of microorganisms to target tumors has certain confinements. The biosafety, genetic instability and the confounded interaction of the bacteria with treatment drugs, requires the more noteworthy consideration regarding the use of this novel treatment in the cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Sarotra
- Department of Pharmacology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, 160012, India
| | - Bikash Medhi
- Department of Pharmacology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, 160012, India.
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31
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Nitroreductase gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy: insights and advances toward clinical utility. Biochem J 2015; 471:131-53. [PMID: 26431849 DOI: 10.1042/bj20150650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This review examines the vast catalytic and therapeutic potential offered by type I (i.e. oxygen-insensitive) nitroreductase enzymes in partnership with nitroaromatic prodrugs, with particular focus on gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (GDEPT; a form of cancer gene therapy). Important first indications of this potential were demonstrated over 20 years ago, for the enzyme-prodrug pairing of Escherichia coli NfsB and CB1954 [5-(aziridin-1-yl)-2,4-dinitrobenzamide]. However, it has become apparent that both the enzyme and the prodrug in this prototypical pairing have limitations that have impeded their clinical progression. Recently, substantial advances have been made in the biodiscovery and engineering of superior nitroreductase variants, in particular development of elegant high-throughput screening capabilities to enable optimization of desirable activities via directed evolution. These advances in enzymology have been paralleled by advances in medicinal chemistry, leading to the development of second- and third-generation nitroaromatic prodrugs that offer substantial advantages over CB1954 for nitroreductase GDEPT, including greater dose-potency and enhanced ability of the activated metabolite(s) to exhibit a local bystander effect. In addition to forging substantial progress towards future clinical trials, this research is supporting other fields, most notably the development and improvement of targeted cellular ablation capabilities in small animal models, such as zebrafish, to enable cell-specific physiology or regeneration studies.
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Osswald A, Sun Z, Grimm V, Ampem G, Riegel K, Westendorf AM, Sommergruber W, Otte K, Dürre P, Riedel CU. Three-dimensional tumor spheroids for in vitro analysis of bacteria as gene delivery vectors in tumor therapy. Microb Cell Fact 2015; 14:199. [PMID: 26655167 PMCID: PMC4676896 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-015-0383-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Several studies in animal models demonstrated that obligate and facultative anaerobic bacteria of the genera Bifidobacterium, Salmonella, or Clostridium specifically colonize solid tumors. Consequently, these and other bacteria are discussed as live vectors to deliver therapeutic genes to inhibit tumor growth. Therapeutic approaches for cancer treatment using anaerobic bacteria have been investigated in different mouse models. In the present study, solid three-dimensional (3D) multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTS) of the colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line HT-29 were generated and tested for their potential to study prodrug-converting enzyme therapies using bacterial vectors in vitro. Results HT-29 MCTS resembled solid tumors displaying all relevant features with an outer zone of proliferating cells and hypoxic and apoptotic regions in the core. Upon incubation with HT-29 MCTS, Bifidobacterium bifidum S17 and Salmonella typhimurium YB1 selectively localized, survived and replicated in hypoxic areas inside MCTS. Furthermore, spores of the obligate anaerobe Clostridium sporogenes germinated in these hypoxic areas. To further evaluate the potential of MCTS to investigate therapeutic approaches using bacteria as gene delivery vectors, recombinant bifidobacteria expressing prodrug-converting enzymes were used. Expression of a secreted cytosine deaminase in combination with 5-fluorocytosine had no effect on growth of MCTS due to an intrinsic resistance of HT-29 cells to 5-fluorouracil, i.e. the converted drug. However, a combination of the prodrug CB1954 and a strain expressing a secreted chromate reductase effectively inhibited MCTS growth. Conclusions Collectively, the presented results indicate that MCTS are a suitable and reliable model to investigate live bacteria as gene delivery vectors for cancer therapy in vitro. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12934-015-0383-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Osswald
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm, 89069, Ulm, Germany. .,Department of Lead Discovery, Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, 1121, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Zhongke Sun
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm, 89069, Ulm, Germany. .,College of Life Sciences and Agriculture, Zhoukou Normal University, Chuanhui District, Zhoukou, 466001, People's Republic of China.
| | - Verena Grimm
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm, 89069, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Grace Ampem
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm, 89069, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Karin Riegel
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm, 89069, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Astrid M Westendorf
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany.
| | - Wolfgang Sommergruber
- Department of Lead Discovery, Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, 1121, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Kerstin Otte
- Institute of Applied Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences Biberach, 88400, Biberach, Germany.
| | - Peter Dürre
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm, 89069, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Christian U Riedel
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm, 89069, Ulm, Germany.
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Lehouritis P, Stanton M, McCarthy FO, Jeavons M, Tangney M. Activation of multiple chemotherapeutic prodrugs by the natural enzymolome of tumour-localised probiotic bacteria. J Control Release 2015; 222:9-17. [PMID: 26655063 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Revised: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Some chemotherapeutic drugs (prodrugs) require activation by an enzyme for efficacy. We and others have demonstrated the ability of probiotic bacteria to grow specifically within solid tumours following systemic administration, and we hypothesised that the natural enzymatic activity of these tumour-localised bacteria may be suitable for activation of certain such chemotherapeutic drugs. Several wild-type probiotic bacteria; Escherichia coli Nissle, Bifidobacterium breve, Lactococcus lactis and Lactobacillus species, were screened against a panel of popular prodrugs. All strains were capable of activating at least one prodrug. E. coli Nissle 1917 was selected for further studies because of its ability to activate numerous prodrugs and its resistance to prodrug toxicity. HPLC data confirmed biochemical transformation of prodrugs to their toxic counterparts. Further analysis demonstrated that different enzymes can complement prodrug activation, while simultaneous activation of multiple prodrugs (CB1954, 5-FC, AQ4N and Fludarabine phosphate) by E. coli was confirmed, resulting in significant efficacy improvement. Experiments in mice harbouring murine tumours validated in vitro findings, with significant reduction in tumour growth and increase in survival of mice treated with probiotic bacteria and a combination of prodrugs. These findings demonstrate the ability of probiotic bacteria, without the requirement for genetic modification, to enable high-level activation of multiple prodrugs specifically at the site of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panos Lehouritis
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Michael Stanton
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Florence O McCarthy
- Department of Chemistry and Analytical and Biological Chemistry Research Facility, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Matthieu Jeavons
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Mark Tangney
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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Tobin PH, Richards DH, Callender RA, Wilson CJ. Protein engineering: a new frontier for biological therapeutics. Curr Drug Metab 2015; 15:743-56. [PMID: 25495737 DOI: 10.2174/1389200216666141208151524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2014] [Revised: 11/27/2014] [Accepted: 12/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Protein engineering holds the potential to transform the metabolic drug landscape through the development of smart, stimulusresponsive drug systems. Protein therapeutics are a rapidly expanding segment of Food and Drug Administration approved drugs that will improve clinical outcomes over the long run. Engineering of protein therapeutics is still in its infancy, but recent general advances in protein engineering capabilities are being leveraged to yield improved control over both pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Stimulus- responsive protein therapeutics are drugs which have been designed to be metabolized under targeted conditions. Protein engineering is being utilized to develop tailored smart therapeutics with biochemical logic. This review focuses on applications of targeted drug neutralization, stimulus-responsive engineered protein prodrugs, and emerging multicomponent smart drug systems (e.g., antibody-drug conjugates, responsive engineered zymogens, prospective biochemical logic smart drug systems, drug buffers, and network medicine applications).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Corey J Wilson
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8286, USA.
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35
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A Phytase-Based Reporter System for Identification of Functional Secretion Signals in Bifidobacteria. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0128802. [PMID: 26086721 PMCID: PMC4472781 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2015] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Health-promoting effects have been attributed to a number of Bifidobacterium sp. strains. These effects as well as the ability to colonise the host depend on secreted proteins. Moreover, rational design of protein secretion systems bears the potential for the generation of novel probiotic bifidobacteria with improved health-promoting or therapeutic properties. To date, there is only very limited data on secretion signals of bifidobacteria available. Using in silico analysis, we demonstrate that all bifidobacteria encode the major components of Sec-dependent secretion machineries but only B. longum strains harbour Tat protein translocation systems. A reporter plasmid for secretion signals in bifidobacteria was established by fusing the coding sequence of the signal peptide of a sialidase of Bifidobacterium bifidum S17 to the phytase gene appA of E. coli. The recombinant strain showed increased phytase activity in spent culture supernatants and reduced phytase levels in crude extracts compared to the control indicating efficient phytase secretion. The reporter plasmid was used to screen seven predicted signal peptides in B. bifidum S17 and B. longum E18. The tested signal peptides differed substantially in their efficacy to mediate protein secretion in different host strains. An efficient signal peptide was used for expression and secretion of a therapeutically relevant protein in B. bifidum S17. Expression of a secreted cytosine deaminase led to a 100-fold reduced sensitivity of B. bifidum S17 to 5-fluorocytosine compared to the non-secreted cytosine deaminase suggesting efficient conversion of 5-fluorocytosine to the cytotoxic cancer drug 5-fluorouracil by cytosine deaminase occurred outside the bacterial cell. Selection of appropriate signal peptides for defined protein secretion might improve therapeutic efficacy as well as probiotic properties of bifidobacteria.
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36
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Wong S, Slavcev R. Treating cancer with infection: a review on bacterial cancer therapy. Lett Appl Microbiol 2015; 61:107-12. [DOI: 10.1111/lam.12436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2014] [Revised: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Wong
- School of Pharmacy; University of Waterloo; Waterloo ON Canada
| | - R.A. Slavcev
- School of Pharmacy; University of Waterloo; Waterloo ON Canada
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37
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Piñero-Lambea C, Ruano-Gallego D, Fernández LÁ. Engineered bacteria as therapeutic agents. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2015; 35:94-102. [PMID: 26070111 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2015.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2015] [Revised: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Although bacteria are generally regarded as the causative agents of infectious diseases, most bacteria inhabiting the human body are non-pathogenic and some of them can be turned, after proper engineering, into 'smart' living therapeutics of defined properties for the treatment of different illnesses. This review focuses on recent developments to engineer bacteria for the treatment of diverse human pathologies, including inflammatory bowel diseases, autoimmune disorders, cancer, metabolic diseases and obesity, as well as to combat bacterial and viral infections. We discuss significant advances provided by synthetic biology to fully reprogram bacteria as human therapeutics, including novel measures for strict biocontainment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Piñero-Lambea
- Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Campus UAM Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - David Ruano-Gallego
- Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Campus UAM Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis Ángel Fernández
- Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Campus UAM Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
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38
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Chávez-Navarro H, Hernández-Cueto DD, Vilchis-Estrada A, Bermúdez-Pulido DC, Antonio-Andrés G, Luria-Pérez R. [Salmonella enterica: an ally in the therapy of cancer]. BOLETIN MEDICO DEL HOSPITAL INFANTIL DE MEXICO 2015; 72:15-25. [PMID: 29421174 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmhimx.2015.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Revised: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica, a species of facultative anaerobic bacteria, has demonstrated success as a live-attenuated bacterial vector for vaccination. S. enterica has also demonstrated promise as a therapeutic agent against cancer. Pre-clinical and clinical trials have shown that S. enterica is localized in both solid and semi-solid tumors as well as in metastatic tumors. Moreover, S. enterica reduces resistance to treatment with other agents. In this review we present the novel therapeutic anti-cancer approaches that use S. enterica both for its ability as a delivery system for heterologous moieties against cancer and for its direct anti-cancer properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilda Chávez-Navarro
- Unidad de Investigación en Enfermedades Oncológicas, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, México D.F., México
| | | | - Ariel Vilchis-Estrada
- Unidad de Investigación en Enfermedades Oncológicas, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, México D.F., México
| | - David César Bermúdez-Pulido
- Unidad de Investigación en Enfermedades Oncológicas, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, México D.F., México
| | - Gabriela Antonio-Andrés
- Unidad de Investigación en Enfermedades Oncológicas, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, México D.F., México
| | - Rosendo Luria-Pérez
- Unidad de Investigación en Enfermedades Oncológicas, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, México D.F., México.
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39
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Iglesias LE, Lewkowicz ES, Medici R, Bianchi P, Iribarren AM. Biocatalytic approaches applied to the synthesis of nucleoside prodrugs. Biotechnol Adv 2015; 33:412-34. [PMID: 25795057 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2014] [Revised: 03/01/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Nucleosides are valuable bioactive molecules, which display antiviral and antitumour activities. Diverse types of prodrugs are designed to enhance their therapeutic efficacy, however this strategy faces the troublesome selectivity issues of nucleoside chemistry. In this context, the aim of this review is to give an overview of the opportunities provided by biocatalytic procedures in the preparation of nucleoside prodrugs. The potential of biocatalysis in this research area will be presented through examples covering the different types of nucleoside prodrugs: nucleoside analogues as prodrugs, nucleoside lipophilic prodrugs and nucleoside hydrophilic prodrugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis E Iglesias
- Laboratorio de Biocatálisis y Biotransformaciones, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, 1876 Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Elizabeth S Lewkowicz
- Laboratorio de Biocatálisis y Biotransformaciones, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, 1876 Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Rosario Medici
- Biocatalysis Group, Delft University of Technology, Julianalaan 67, 2628 BC Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Paola Bianchi
- Laboratorio de Biocatálisis y Biotransformaciones, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, 1876 Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Adolfo M Iribarren
- Laboratorio de Biocatálisis y Biotransformaciones, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, 1876 Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Laboratorio de Química de Ácidos Nucleicos, INGEBI-CONICET, Vuelta de Obligado 2490, 1428 Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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40
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Hsieh YT, Chen KC, Cheng CM, Cheng TL, Tao MH, Roffler SR. Impediments to enhancement of CPT-11 anticancer activity by E. coli directed beta-glucuronidase therapy. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118028. [PMID: 25688562 PMCID: PMC4331512 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
CPT-11 is a camptothecin analog used for the clinical treatment of colorectal adenocarcinoma. CPT-11 is converted into the therapeutic anti-cancer agent SN-38 by liver enzymes and can be further metabolized to a non-toxic glucuronide SN-38G, resulting in low SN-38 but high SN-38G concentrations in the circulation. We previously demonstrated that adenoviral expression of membrane-anchored beta-glucuronidase could promote conversion of SN-38G to SN-38 in tumors and increase the anticancer activity of CPT-11. Here, we identified impediments to effective tumor therapy with E. coli that were engineered to constitutively express highly active E. coli beta-glucuronidase intracellularly to enhance the anticancer activity of CPT-11. The engineered bacteria, E. coli (lux/βG), could hydrolyze SN-38G to SN-38, increased the sensitivity of cultured tumor cells to SN-38G by about 100 fold and selectively accumulated in tumors. However, E. coli (lux/βG) did not more effectively increase CPT-11 anticancer activity in human tumor xenografts as compared to non-engineered E. coli. SN-38G conversion to SN-38 by E. coli (lux/βG) appeared to be limited by slow uptake into bacteria as well as by segregation of E. coli in necrotic regions of tumors that may be relatively inaccessible to systemically-administered drug molecules. Studies using a fluorescent glucuronide probe showed that significantly greater glucuronide hydrolysis could be achieved in mice pretreated with E. coli (lux/βG) by direct intratumoral injection of the glucuronide probe or by intratumoral lysis of bacteria to release intracellular beta-glucuronidase. Our study suggests that the distribution of beta-glucuronidase, and possibly other therapeutic proteins, in the tumor microenvironment might be an important barrier for effective bacterial-based tumor therapy. Expression of secreted therapeutic proteins or induction of therapeutic protein release from bacteria might therefore be a promising strategy to enhance anti-tumor activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Ting Hsieh
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Chuan Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chiu-Min Cheng
- Department of Aquaculture, National Kaohsiung Marine University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Tian-Lu Cheng
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Mi-Hua Tao
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Steve R. Roffler
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
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41
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Byrne WL, Murphy CT, Cronin M, Wirth T, Tangney M. Bacterial-mediated DNA delivery to tumour associated phagocytic cells. J Control Release 2014; 196:384-93. [PMID: 25466954 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Revised: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 10/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Phagocytic cells including macrophages, dendritic cells and neutrophils are now recognised as playing a negative role in many disease settings including cancer. In particular, macrophages are known to play a pathophysiological role in multiple diseases and present a valid and ubiquitous therapeutic target. The technology to target these phagocytic cells in situ, both selectively and efficiently, is required in order to translate novel therapeutic modalities into clinical reality. We present a novel delivery strategy using non-pathogenic bacteria to effect gene delivery specifically to tumour-associated phagocytic cells. Non-invasive bacteria lack the ability to actively enter host cells, except for phagocytic cells. We exploit this natural property to effect 'passive transfection' of tumour-associated phagocytic cells following direct administration of transgene-loaded bacteria to tumour regions. Using an in vitro-differentiated human monocyte cell line and two in vivo mouse models (an ovarian cancer ascites and a solid colon tumour model) proof of delivery is demonstrated with bacteria carrying reporter constructs. The results confirm that the delivery strategy is specific for phagocytic cells and that the bacterial vector itself recruits more phagocytic cells to the tumour. While proof of delivery to phagocytic cells is demonstrated in vivo for solid and ascites tumour models, this strategy may be applied to other settings, including non-cancer related disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- W L Byrne
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - C T Murphy
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - M Cronin
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - T Wirth
- Aurealis Pharma, Microkatu 1, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - M Tangney
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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Andreasen SØ, Fejerskov B, Zelikin AN. Biocatalytic polymer thin films: optimization of the multilayered architecture towards in situ synthesis of anti-proliferative drugs. NANOSCALE 2014; 6:4131-4140. [PMID: 24604061 DOI: 10.1039/c3nr05999e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
We report on the assembly of multi-layered polyelectrolyte thin films containing an immobilized enzyme to perform conversion of externally administered prodrugs and achieve delivery of the resulting therapeutics to adhering cells. Towards this goal, multi-layered coatings were assembled using poly(sodium styrene sulfonate) and poly(allylamine hydrochloride). Activity of the incorporated enzyme was quantified as a function of the assembly conditions, position of the enzyme within the multi-layered architecture, concentration of the enzyme in the adsorption solution, and concentration of the administered prodrug. Biocatalytic coatings exhibited sustained levels of enzymatic activity over at least one week of incubation in physiological buffers without signs of loss of activity of the enzyme. Developed enzyme-containing polymer films afforded zero-order release of the in situ synthesized cargo with kinetics of synthesis (nM per hour) covering at least 3 orders of magnitude. Internalization of the synthesized product by adhering cells was visualized using a fluorogenic enzyme substrate. Therapeutic utility of biocatalytic coatings was demonstrated using a myoblast cell line and a prodrug for the anti-proliferative agent, 5-fluorouridine. Taken together, this work presents a novel approach to delivery of small molecule drugs using multi-layered polymer thin films with utility in surface-mediated drug delivery, assembly of therapeutic implantable devices, and tissue engineering.
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43
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Cronin M, Le Boeuf F, Murphy C, Roy DG, Falls T, Bell JC, Tangney M. Bacterial-mediated knockdown of tumor resistance to an oncolytic virus enhances therapy. Mol Ther 2014; 22:1188-1197. [PMID: 24569832 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2014.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) and bacteria share the property of tumor-selective replication following systemic administration. In the case of nonpathogenic bacteria, tumor selectivity relates to their ability to grow extracellularly within tumor stroma and is therefore ideally suited to restricting the production of bacterially produced therapeutic agents to tumors. We have previously shown the ability of the type 1 interferon antagonist B18R to enhance the replication and spread of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) by overcoming related cellular innate immunity. In this study, we utilized nonpathogenic bacteria (E. coli) expressing B18R to facilitate tumor-specific production of B18R, resulting in a microenvironment depleted of bioactive antiviral cytokine, thus "preconditioning" the tumor to enhance subsequent tumor destruction by the OV. Both in vitro and in vivo infection by VSVΔ51 was greatly enhanced by B18R produced from E. coli. Moreover, a significant increase in therapeutic efficacy resulted from intravenous (i.v.) injection of bacteria to tumor-bearing mice 5 days prior to i.v. VSVΔ51 administration, as evidenced by a significant reduction in tumor growth and increased survival in mice. Our strategy is the first example where two such diverse microorganisms are rationally combined and demonstrates the feasibility of combining complementary microorganisms to improve therapeutic outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Cronin
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Fabrice Le Boeuf
- Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Carola Murphy
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Dominic G Roy
- Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Theresa Falls
- Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - John C Bell
- Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mark Tangney
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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Foehrenbacher A, Secomb TW, Wilson WR, Hicks KO. Design of optimized hypoxia-activated prodrugs using pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modeling. Front Oncol 2013; 3:314. [PMID: 24409417 PMCID: PMC3873531 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2013.00314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia contributes to resistance of tumors to some cytotoxic drugs and to radiotherapy, but can in principle be exploited with hypoxia-activated prodrugs (HAP). HAP in clinical development fall into two broad groups. Class I HAP (like the benzotriazine N-oxides tirapazamine and SN30000), are activated under relatively mild hypoxia. In contrast, Class II HAP (such as the nitro compounds PR-104A or TH-302) are maximally activated only under extreme hypoxia, but their active metabolites (effectors) diffuse to cells at intermediate O2 and thus also eliminate moderately hypoxic cells. Here, we use a spatially resolved pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (SR-PK/PD) model to compare these two strategies and to identify the features required in an optimal Class II HAP. The model uses a Green's function approach to calculate spatial and longitudinal gradients of O2, prodrug, and effector concentrations, and resulting killing in a digitized 3D tumor microregion to estimate activity as monotherapy and in combination with radiotherapy. An analogous model for a normal tissue with mild hypoxia and short intervessel distances (based on a cremaster muscle microvessel network) was used to estimate tumor selectivity of cell killing. This showed that Class II HAP offer advantages over Class I including higher tumor selectivity and greater freedom to vary prodrug diffusibility and rate of metabolic activation. The model suggests that the largest gains in class II HAP antitumor activity could be realized by optimizing effector stability and prodrug activation rates. We also use the model to show that diffusion of effector into blood vessels is unlikely to materially increase systemic exposure for realistic tumor burdens and effector clearances. However, we show that the tumor selectivity achievable by hypoxia-dependent prodrug activation alone is limited if dose-limiting normal tissues are even mildly hypoxic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Foehrenbacher
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - William R. Wilson
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Kevin O. Hicks
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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45
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Zoabi N, Golani-Armon A, Zinger A, Reshef M, Yaari Z, Vardi-Oknin D, Shatsberg Z, Shomar A, Shainsky-Roitman J, Schroeder A. The Evolution of Tumor-Targeted Drug Delivery: From the EPR Effect to Nanoswimmers. Isr J Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.201300061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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