Ultra-small lipid nanoparticles encapsulating sorafenib and midkine-siRNA selectively-eradicate sorafenib-resistant hepatocellular carcinoma in vivo

Lipid Nanovesicle Platforms for Hepatocellular Carcinoma Precision Medicine Therapeutics: Progress and Perspectives

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality globally. HCC is highly heterogenous with diverse etiologies leading to different driver mutations potentiating unique tumor immune microenvironments. Current therapeutic options, including immune checkpoint inhibitors and combinations, have achieved limited objective response rates for the majority of patients. Thus, a precision medicine approach is needed to tailor specific treatment options for molecular subsets of HCC patients. Lipid nanovesicle platforms, either liposome- (synthetic) or extracellular vesicle (natural)-derived present are improved drug delivery vehicles which may be modified to contain specific cargos for targeting specific tumor sites, with a natural affinity for liver with limited toxicity. This mini-review provides updates on the applications of novel lipid nanovesicle-based therapeutics for HCC precision medicine and the challenges associated with translating this therapeutic subclass from preclinical models to the clinic.

Strategies to enhance the response of liver cancer to pharmacological treatments

In contrast to other types of cancers, there is no available efficient pharmacological treatment to improve the outcomes of patients suffering from major primary liver cancers, i.e., hepatocellular carcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma. This dismal situation is partly due to the existence in these tumors of many different and synergistic mechanisms of resistance, accounting for the lack of response of these patients, not only to classical chemotherapy but also to more modern pharmacological agents based on the inhibition of tyrosine kinase receptors (TKIs) and the stimulation of the immune response against the tumor using immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). This review summarizes the efforts to develop strategies to overcome this severe limitation, including searching for novel drugs derived from synthetic, semisynthetic, or natural products with vectorial properties against therapeutic targets to increase drug uptake or reduce drug export from cancer cells. Besides, immunotherapy is a promising line of research that is already starting to be implemented in clinical practice. Although less successful than in other cancers, the foreseen future for this strategy in treating liver cancers is considerable. Similarly, the pharmacological inhibition of epigenetic targets is highly promising. Many novel "epidrugs," able to act on "writer," "reader," and "eraser" epigenetic players, are currently being evaluated in preclinical and clinical studies. Finally, gene therapy is a broad field of research in the fight against liver cancer chemoresistance, based on the impressive advances recently achieved in gene manipulation. In sum, although the present is still dismal, there is reason for hope in the non-too-distant future.

Immunological nanomaterials to combat cancer metastasis

Metastasis causes greater than 90% of cancer-associated deaths, presenting huge challenges for detection and efficient treatment of cancer due to its high heterogeneity and widespread dissemination to various organs. Therefore, it is imperative to combat cancer metastasis, which is the key to achieving complete cancer eradication. Immunotherapy as a systemic approach has shown promising potential to combat metastasis. However, current clinical immunotherapies are not effective for all patients or all types of cancer metastases owing to insufficient immune responses. In recent years, immunological nanomaterials with intrinsic immunogenicity or immunomodulatory agents with efficient loading have been shown to enhance immune responses to eliminate metastasis. In this review, we would like to summarize various types of immunological nanomaterials against metastasis. Moreover, this review will summarize a series of immunological nanomaterial-mediated immunotherapy strategies to combat metastasis, including immunogenic cell death, regulation of chemokines and cytokines, improving the immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment, activation of the STING pathway, enhancing cytotoxic natural killer cell activity, enhancing antigen presentation of dendritic cells, and enhancing chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy. Furthermore, the synergistic anti-metastasis strategies based on the combinational use of immunotherapy and other therapeutic modalities will also be introduced. In addition, the nanomaterial-mediated imaging techniques (e.g., optical imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, photoacoustic imaging, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, radionuclide imaging, etc.) for detecting metastasis and monitoring anti-metastasis efficacy are also summarized. Finally, the current challenges and future prospects of immunological nanomaterial-based anti-metastasis are also elucidated with the intention to accelerate its clinical translation.

MCT4 knockdown by tumor microenvironment-responsive nanoparticles remodels the cytokine profile and eradicates aggressive breast cancer cells

Breast cancer is a wide-spread threat to the women's health. The drawbacks of conventional treatments necessitate the development of alternative strategies, where gene therapy has regained hope in achieving an efficient eradication of aggressive tumors. Monocarboxylate transporter 4 (MCT4) plays pivotal roles in the growth and survival of various tumors, which offers a promising target for treatment. In the present study, pH-responsive lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) based on the ionizable lipid,1,2-dioleoyl-3-dimethylammonium propane (DODAP), were designed for the delivery of siRNA targeting MCT4 gene to the breast cancer cells. Following multiple steps of characterization and optimization, the anticancer activities of the LNPs were assessed against an aggressive breast cancer cell line, 4T1, in comparison with a normal cell line, LX-2. The selection of the helper phospholipid to be incorporated into the LNPs had a dramatic impact on their gene delivery performance. The optimized LNPs enabled a powerful MCT4 silencing by ∼90 % at low siRNA concentrations, with a subsequent ∼80 % cytotoxicity to 4T1 cells. Meanwhile, the LNPs demonstrated a 5-fold higher affinity to the breast cancer cells versus the normal cells, in which they had a minimum effect. Moreover, the MCT4 knockdown by the treatment remodeled the cytokine profile in 4T1 cells, as evidenced by 90 % and ∼64 % reduction in the levels of TNF-α and IL-6; respectively. The findings of this study are promising for potential clinical applications. Furthermore, the simple and scalable delivery vector developed herein can serve as a breast cancer-targeting platform for the delivery of other RNA therapeutics.

Lipid nanoparticles as the drug carrier for targeted therapy of hepatic disorders

The liver, a complex and vital organ in the human body, is susceptible to various diseases, including metabolic disorders, acute hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. In recent decades, these diseases have significantly contributed to global morbidity and mortality. Currently, liver transplantation remains the most effective treatment for hepatic disorders. Nucleic acid therapeutics offer a selective approach to disease treatment through diverse mechanisms, enabling the regulation of relevant genes and providing a novel therapeutic avenue for hepatic disorders. It is expected that nucleic acid drugs will emerge as the third generation of pharmaceuticals, succeeding small molecule drugs and antibody drugs. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) represent a crucial technology in the field of drug delivery and constitute a significant advancement in gene therapies. Nucleic acids encapsulated in LNPs are shielded from the degradation of enzymes and effectively delivered to cells, where they are released and regulate specific genes. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the structure, composition, and applications of LNPs in the treatment of hepatic disorders and offers insights into prospects and challenges in the future development of LNPs.

Advances in Microfluidic-Based Core@Shell Nanoparticles Fabrication for Cancer Applications

Current research in cancer therapy focuses on personalized therapies, through nanotechnology-based targeted drug delivery systems. Particularly, controlled drug release with nanoparticles (NPs) can be designed to safely transport various active agents, optimizing delivery to specific organs and tumors, minimizing side effects. The use of microfluidics (MFs) in this field has stood out against conventional methods by allowing precise control over parameters like size, structure, composition, and mechanical/biological properties of nanoscale carriers. This review compiles applications of microfluidics in the production of core-shell NPs (CSNPs) for cancer therapy, discussing the versatility inherent in various microchannel and/or micromixer setups and showcasing how these setups can be utilized individually or in combination, as well as how this technology allows the development of new advances in more efficient and controlled fabrication of core-shell nanoformulations. Recent biological studies have achieved an effective, safe, and controlled delivery of otherwise unreliable encapsulants such as small interfering RNA (siRNA), plasmid DNA (pDNA), and cisplatin as a result of precisely tuned fabrication of nanocarriers, showing that this technology is paving the way for innovative strategies in cancer therapy nanofabrication, characterized by continuous production and high reproducibility. Finally, this review analyzes the technical, biological, and technological limitations that currently prevent this technology from becoming the standard.

Understanding Gene Involvement in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Implications for Gene Therapy and Personalized Medicine

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the dominant type of liver cancers and is one of the deadliest health threats globally. The conventional therapeutic options for HCC are hampered by low efficiency and intolerable side effects. Gene therapy, however, now offers hope for the treatment of many disorders previously considered incurable, and gene therapy is beginning to address many of the shortcomings of conventional therapies. Herein, we summarize the involvement of genes in the pathogenesis and prognosis of HCC, with a special focus on dysregulated signaling pathways, genes involved in immune evasion, and non-coding RNAs as novel two-edged players, which collectively offer potential targets for the gene therapy of HCC. Herein, the opportunities and challenges of HCC gene therapy are discussed. These include innovative therapies such as genome editing and cell therapies. Moreover, advanced gene delivery technologies that recruit nanomedicines for use in gene therapy for HCC are highlighted. Finally, suggestions are offered for improved clinical translation and future directions in this area of endeavor.

The Role of Small Interfering RNAs in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a primary liver cancer with high mortality, is the most common malignant tumor in the world. Currently, the effect of routine treatment is poor, especially for this kind of cancer with strong heterogeneity and late detection. In the past decades, the researches of gene therapy for HCC based on small interfering RNA have blossomed everywhere. This is a promising therapeutic strategy, but the application of siRNA is limited by the discovery of effective molecular targets and the delivery system targeting HCC. As the deepening of research, scientists have developed many effective delivery systems and found more new therapeutic targets.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper mainly reviews the research on HCC treatment based on siRNA in recent years, and summarizes and classifies the HCC treatment targets and siRNA delivery systems.

Chemically Modified Platforms for Better RNA Therapeutics

RNA-based therapies have catalyzed a revolutionary transformation in the biomedical landscape, offering unprecedented potential in disease prevention and treatment. However, despite their remarkable achievements, these therapies encounter substantial challenges including low stability, susceptibility to degradation by nucleases, and a prominent negative charge, thereby hindering further development. Chemically modified platforms have emerged as a strategic innovation, focusing on precise alterations either on the RNA moieties or their associated delivery vectors. This comprehensive review delves into these platforms, underscoring their significance in augmenting the performance and translational prospects of RNA-based therapeutics. It encompasses an in-depth analysis of various chemically modified delivery platforms that have been instrumental in propelling RNA therapeutics toward clinical utility. Moreover, the review scrutinizes the rationale behind diverse chemical modification techniques aiming at optimizing the therapeutic efficacy of RNA molecules, thereby facilitating robust disease management. Recent empirical studies corroborating the efficacy enhancement of RNA therapeutics through chemical modifications are highlighted. Conclusively, we offer profound insights into the transformative impact of chemical modifications on RNA drugs and delineates prospective trajectories for their future development and clinical integration.

Targeted Nanoparticles: the Smart Way for the Treatment of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a widespread cancer that starts in the digestive tract. It is the third most common cause of cancer deaths around the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates an expected death toll of over 1 million cases annually. The limited therapeutic options as well as the drawbacks of the existing therapies necessitate the development of non-classic treatment approaches. Nanotechnology has led the evolution of valuable drug delivery systems thanks to their ability to control drug release and precisely target a wide variety of cancers. This has also been extended to the treatment of CRC. Herein, we shed light on the pertinent research that has been performed on the potential applications of nanoparticles in the treatment of CRC. The various types of nanoparticles in addition to their properties, applications, targeting approaches, merits, and demerits are discussed. Furthermore, innovative therapies for CRC, including gene therapies and immunotherapies, are also highlighted. Eventually, the research gaps, the clinical potential of such delivery systems, and a future outlook on their development are inspired.

Chemistry and Art of Developing Lipid Nanoparticles for Biologics Delivery: Focus on Development and Scale-Up

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have gained prominence as primary carriers for delivering a diverse array of therapeutic agents. Biological products have achieved a solid presence in clinical settings, and the anticipation of creating novel variants is increasing. These products predominantly encompass therapeutic proteins, nucleic acids and messenger RNA. The advancement of efficient LNP-based delivery systems for biologics that can overcome their limitations remains a highly favorable formulation strategy. Moreover, given their small size, biocompatibility, and biodegradation, LNPs can proficiently transport therapeutic moiety into the cells without significant toxicity and adverse reactions. This is especially crucial for the existing and upcoming biopharmaceuticals since large molecules as a group present several challenges that can be overcome by LNPs. This review describes the LNP technology for the delivery of biologics and summarizes the developments in the chemistry, manufacturing, and characterization of lipids used in the development of LNPs for biologics. Finally, we present a perspective on the potential opportunities and the current challenges pertaining to LNP technology.

Microfluidic synthesis of nanomaterials for biomedical applications

The field of nanomaterials has progressed dramatically over the past decades with important contributions to the biomedical area. The physicochemical properties of nanomaterials, such as the size and structure, can be controlled through manipulation of mass and heat transfer conditions during synthesis. In particular, microfluidic systems with rapid mixing and precise fluid control are ideal platforms for creating appropriate synthesis conditions. One notable example of microfluidics-based synthesis is the development of lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-based mRNA vaccines with accelerated clinical translation and robust efficacy during the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to LNPs, microfluidic systems have been adopted for the controlled synthesis of a broad range of nanomaterials. In this review, we introduce the fundamental principles of microfluidic technologies including flow field- and multiple field-based methods for fabricating nanoparticles, and discuss their applications in the biomedical field. We conclude this review by outlining several major challenges and future directions in the implementation of microfluidic synthesis of nanomaterials.

Natural compounds as lactate dehydrogenase inhibitors: potential therapeutics for lactate dehydrogenase inhibitors-related diseases

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a crucial enzyme involved in energy metabolism and present in various cells throughout the body. Its diverse physiological functions encompass glycolysis, and its abnormal activity is associated with numerous diseases. Targeting LDH has emerged as a vital approach in drug discovery, leading to the identification of LDH inhibitors among natural compounds, such as polyphenols, alkaloids, and terpenoids. These compounds demonstrate therapeutic potential against LDH-related diseases, including anti-cancer effects. However, challenges concerning limited bioavailability, poor solubility, and potential toxicity must be addressed. Combining natural compounds with LDH inhibitors has led to promising outcomes in preclinical studies. This review highlights the promise of natural compounds as LDH inhibitors for treating cancer, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Exploiting targeted nanomedicine for surveillance, diagnosis, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the cancers that has the highest morbidity and mortality rates. In clinical practice, there are still many limitations in surveilling, diagnosing, and treating HCC, such as the poor detection of early HCC, the frequent post-surgery recurrence, the low local tumor control rate, the therapy resistance and side effects. Therefore, improved, or innovative modalities are urgently required for early diagnosis as well as refined and effective management. In recent years, nanotechnology research in the field of HCC has received great attention, with various aspects of diagnosis and treatment including biomarkers, ultrasound, diagnostic imaging, intraoperative imaging, ablation, transarterial chemoembolization, radiotherapy, and systemic therapy. Different from previous reviews that discussed from the perspective of nanoparticles' structure, design and function, this review systematically summarizes the methods and limitations of diagnosing and treating HCC in clinical guidelines and practices, as well as nanomedicine applications. Nanomedicine can overcome the limitations to improve diagnosis accuracy and therapeutic effect via enhancement of targeting, biocompatibility, bioavailability, controlled releasing, and combination of different clinical treatment modalities. Through an in-depth understanding of the logic of nanotechnology to conquer clinical limitations, the main research directions of nanotechnology in HCC are sorted out in this review. It is anticipated that nanomedicine will play a significant role in the future clinical practices of HCC.

Communication Protocols Integrating Wearables, Ingestibles, and Implantables for Closed-Loop Therapies

Body-conformal sensors and tissue interfacing robotic therapeutics enable the real-time monitoring and treatment of diabetes, wound healing, and other critical conditions. By integrating sensors and drug delivery devices, scientists and engineers have developed closed-loop drug delivery systems with on-demand therapeutic capabilities to provide just-in-time treatments that correspond to chemical, electrical, and physical signals of a target morbidity. To enable closed-loop functionality in vivo, engineers utilize various low-power means of communication that reduce the size of implants by orders of magnitude, increase device lifetime from hours to months, and ensure the secure high-speed transfer of data. In this review, we highlight how communication protocols used to integrate sensors and drug delivery devices, such as radio frequency communication (e.g., Bluetooth, near-field communication), in-body communication, and ultrasound, enable improved treatment outcomes.

RNA nanomedicine in liver diseases

The remarkable impact of RNA nanomedicine during the COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated the expansive therapeutic potential of this field in diverse disease contexts. In recent years, RNA nanomedicine targeting the liver has been paradigm-shifting in the management of metabolic diseases such as hyperoxaluria and amyloidosis. RNA nanomedicine has significant potential in the management of liver diseases, where optimal management would benefit from targeted delivery, doses titrated to liver metabolism, and personalized therapy based on the specific site of interest. In this review, we discuss in-depth the different types of RNA and nanocarriers used for liver targeting along with their specific applications in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, liver fibrosis, and liver cancers. We further highlight the strategies for cell-specific delivery and future perspectives in this field of research with the emergence of small activating RNA, circular RNA, and RNA base editing approaches.

Lipid nanoparticles for siRNA delivery in cancer treatment

RNA-based therapies, and siRNAs in particular, have attractive therapeutic potential for cancer treatment due to their ability to silence genes that are imperative for tumor progression. To be effective and solve issues related to their poor half-life and poor pharmacokinetic properties, siRNAs require adequate drug delivery systems that protect them from degradation and allow intracellular delivery. Among the various delivery vehicles available, lipid nanoparticles have emerged as the leading choice. These nanoparticles consist of cholesterol, phospholipids, PEG-lipids and most importantly ionizable cationic lipids. These ionizable lipids enable the binding of negatively charged siRNA, resulting in the formation of stable and neutral lipid nanoparticles with exceptionally high encapsulation efficiency. Lipid nanoparticles have demonstrated their effectiveness and versatility in delivering not only siRNAs but also multiple RNA molecules, contributing to their remarkable success. Furthermore, the advancement of efficient manufacturing techniques such as microfluidics, enables the rapid mixing of two miscible solvents without the need for shear forces. This facilitates the reproducible production of lipid nanoparticles and holds enormous potential for scalability. This is shown by the increasing number of preclinical and clinical trials evaluating the potential use of siRNA-LNPs for the treatment of solid and hematological tumors as well as in cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we provide an overview of the progress made on siRNA-LNP development for cancer treatment and outline the current preclinical and clinical landscape in this area. Finally, the translational challenges required to bring siRNA-LNPs further into the clinic are also discussed.

Non-coding RNA-directed therapeutics in lung cancer: Delivery technologies and clinical applications

Lung cancer is one of the most aggressive and deadliest health threats. There has been an increasing interest in non-coding RNA (ncRNA) recently, especially in the areas of carcinogenesis and tumour progression. However, ncRNA-directed therapies are still encountering obstacles on their way to the clinic. In the present article, we provide an overview on the potential of targeting ncRNA in the treatment of lung cancer. Then, we discuss the delivery challenges and recent approaches enabling the delivery of ncRNA-directed therapies to the lung cancer cells, where we illuminate some advanced technologies including chemically-modified oligonucleotides, nuclear targeting, and three-dimensional in vitro models. Furthermore, advanced non-viral delivery systems recruiting nanoparticles, biomimetic delivery systems, and extracellular vesicles are also highlighted. Lastly, the challenges limiting the clinical trials on the therapeutic targeting of ncRNAs in lung cancer and future directions to tackle them are explored.

Reprogramming activated hepatic stellate cells by siRNA-loaded nanocarriers reverses liver fibrosis in mice

We report on a novel strategy for treating liver fibrosis through reprogramming activated Hepatic Stellate Cells (aHSCs) into quiescent Hepatic Stellate Cells (qHSCs) using siRNA-loaded lipid nanoparticles (LNPs). The in vivo screening of an array of molecularly-diverse ionizable lipids identified two candidates, CL15A6 and CL15H6, with a high siRNA delivery efficiency to aHSCs. Optimization of the composition and physico-chemical properties of the LNPs enabled the ligand-free, selective, and potent siRNA delivery to aHSCs post intravenous administration, with a median effective siRNA dose (ED50) as low as 0.08 mg/Kg. The biosafety of the LNPs was confirmed by escalating the dose to 50-fold higher than the ED50 or by chronic administration. The recruitment of the novel LNPs for the simultaneous knockdown of Hedgehog (Hh) and Transforming Growth Factor Beta 1 (TGFβ1) signaling pathways using an siRNA cocktail enabled the reversal of liver fibrosis and the restoration of the normal liver function in mice. Analysis of the key transcription factors in aHSCs suggested that the reprogramming of aHSCs into qHSCs mediated the therapeutic outcomes. The scalable ligand-free platform developed in this study as well as the novel therapeutic strategy reported herein are promising for clinical translation.

Chitosan-based nanoscale delivery systems in hepatocellular carcinoma: Versatile bio-platform with theranostic application

The field of nanomedicine has provided a fresh approach to cancer treatment by addressing the limitations of current therapies and offering new perspectives on enhancing patients' prognoses and chances of survival. Chitosan (CS) is isolated from chitin that has been extensively utilized for surface modification and coating of nanocarriers to improve their biocompatibility, cytotoxicity against tumor cells, and stability. HCC is a prevalent kind of liver tumor that cannot be adequately treated with surgical resection in its advanced stages. Furthermore, the development of resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy has caused treatment failure. The targeted delivery of drugs and genes can be mediated by nanostructures in treatment of HCC. The current review focuses on the function of CS-based nanostructures in HCC therapy and discusses the newest advances of nanoparticle-mediated treatment of HCC. Nanostructures based on CS have the capacity to escalate the pharmacokinetic profile of both natural and synthetic drugs, thus improving the effectiveness of HCC therapy. Some experiments have displayed that CS nanoparticles can be deployed to co-deliver drugs to disrupt tumorigenesis in a synergistic way. Moreover, the cationic nature of CS makes it a favorable nanocarrier for delivery of genes and plasmids. The use of CS-based nanostructures can be harnessed for phototherapy. Additionally, the incur poration of ligands including arginylglycylaspartic acid (RGD) into CS can elevate the targeted delivery of drugs to HCC cells. Interestingly, smart CS-based nanostructures, including ROS- and pH-sensitive nanoparticles, have been designed to provide cargo release at the tumor site and enhance the potential for HCC suppression.

Impact of the Functional Coating of Silver Nanoparticles on their In Vivo Performance and Biosafety

OBJECTIVE AND SIGNIFICANCE

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have become an interesting therapeutic modality and drug delivery platform. Herein, we aimed to investigate the impact of functional coating on the in vivo performance of AgNPs as an economic and scalable method to modulate their behavior.

METHODS

AgNPs were coated with chitosan (CHI) as a model biopolymer using a one-pot reduction-based method, where CHI of two molecular weight ranges were investigated. The resultant CHI-coated AgNPs (AgNPs-CHI) were characterized using UV-VIS spectroscopy, DLS, and TEM. AgNPs were administered intravenously to rats and their biodistribution and serum levels of hepato-renal function markers were monitored 24 h later compared to plain AgNO₃ as a positive control.

RESULTS

UV-VIS spectroscopy confirmed the successful coating of AgNPs with CHI. DLS revealed the superiority of medium molecular weight CHI over its low molecular weight counterpart. AgNPs-CHI demonstrated a semi-complete clearance from the systemic circulation, a liver-dominated tissue tropism, and a limited renal exposure. On the other hand, AgNO₃ was poorly cleared from the circulation, with a relatively high renal exposure and a non-specific tissue tropism. AgNPs-CHI were well-tolerated by the liver and kidney without signs of toxicity or inflammation, in contrary with AgNO₃ which resulted in a significant elevation of Creatinine (CRE), Urea, and Total Protein (TP), suggesting a significant nephrotoxicity and inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

Functional coating of AgNPs with CHI substantially modulated their in vivo behavior, promoting their hepatic selectivity and biotolerability, which can be invested in the development of drug delivery systems for the treatment of liver diseases.

Lipid metabolism of hepatocellular carcinoma impacts targeted therapy and immunotherapy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a common malignant tumor that affecting many people's lives globally. The common risk factors for HCC include being overweight and obese. The liver is the center of lipid metabolism, synthesizing most cholesterol and fatty acids. Abnormal lipid metabolism is a significant feature of metabolic reprogramming in HCC and affects the prognosis of HCC patients by regulating inflammatory responses and changing the immune microenvironment. Targeted therapy and immunotherapy are being explored as the primary treatment strategies for HCC patients with unresectable tumors. Here, we detail the specific changes of lipid metabolism in HCC and its impact on both these therapies for HCC. HCC treatment strategies aimed at targeting lipid metabolism and how to integrate them with targeted therapy or immunotherapy rationally are also presented.

Use of Microfluidics to Prepare Lipid-Based Nanocarriers

Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) are an important tool for the delivery of a diverse set of drug cargoes, including small molecules, oligonucleotides, and proteins and peptides. Despite their development over the past several decades, this technology is still hindered by issues with the manufacturing processes leading to high polydispersity, batch-to-batch and operator-dependent variability, and limits to the production volumes. To overcome these issues, the use of microfluidic techniques in the production of LBNPs has sharply increased over the past two years. Microfluidics overcomes many of the pitfalls seen with conventional production methods, leading to reproducible LBNPs at lower costs and higher yields. In this review, the use of microfluidics in the preparation of various types of LBNPs, including liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, and solid lipid nanoparticles for the delivery of small molecules, oligonucleotides, and peptide/protein drugs is summarized. Various microfluidic parameters, as well as their effects on the physicochemical properties of LBNPs, are also discussed.

Microfluidics-enabled Serial Assembly of Lipid-siRNA-sorafenib Nanoparticles for Synergetic Hepatocellular Carcinoma Therapy

Multi-component nanoparticles (mNPs) hold great potential for disease prevention and treatment. However, a major barrier is the lack of versatile platforms to accommodate steps of assembly processes of mNPs. Here the microfluidics-enabled serial assembly (MESA) of mNPs is presented. The microfluidic chip, as a mini-conveyor of initial materials, sequentially enables the assembly of sorafenib supramolecule, electrostatic adsorption of siRNA, and surface assembly of protective lipids. The produced lipid-siRNA-sorafenib nanoparticles (LSS NPs) have ultrahigh encapsulation efficiencies for sorafenib (≈100%) and siRNA (≈95%), which benefit from the accommodation of both fast and slow processes on the chip. Although carrying negative charges, LSS NPs enable cytosolic delivery of agents and high gene silencing efficiency within tumor cells. In vivo, the LSS NPs delivering hypoxia-induced factor (HIF1α)-targeted siRNA efficiently regress tumors of Hep3B xenograft and hepatocellular carcinoma patient-derived primary cells xenograft (PDCX) and finally extend the average survival of PDCX mice to 68 days. Thus, this strategy is promising as a sorafenib/siRNA combination therapy, and MESA can be a universal platform for fabricating complex nanosystems.

Lipid-based nucleic acid therapeutics with in vivo efficacy

Synthetic vectors for therapeutic nucleic acid delivery are currently competing significantly with their viral counter parts due to their reduced immunogenicity, large payload capacity, and ease of manufacture under GMP-compliant norms. The approval of Onpattro, a lipid-based siRNA therapeutic, and the proven clinical success of two lipid-based COVID-19 vaccines from Pfizer-BioNTech, and Moderna heralded the specific advantages of lipid-based systems among all other synthetic nucleic acid carriers. Lipid-based systems with diverse payloads-plasmid DNA (pDNA), antisense oligonucleotide (ASO), small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNA (miRNA), small activating RNA (saRNA), and messenger RNA (mRNA)-are now becoming a mature technology, with growing impact in the clinic. Research over four decades identified the key factors determining the therapeutic success of these multi-component systems. Here, we discuss the main nucleic acid-based technologies, presenting their mechanism of action, delivery barriers facing them, the structural properties of the payload as well as the component lipids that regulate physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetics and biodistribution, efficacy, and toxicity of the resultant nanoparticles. We further detail on the formulation parameters, evolution of the manufacturing techniques that generate reproducible and scalable outputs, and key manufacturing aspects that enable control over physicochemical properties of the resultant particles. Preclinical applications of some of these formulations that were successfully translated from in vitro studies to animal models are subsequently discussed. Finally, clinical success and failure of these systems starting from 1993 to present are highlighted, in a holistic literature review focused on lipid-based nucleic acid delivery systems. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Toxicology of Nanomaterials.

Lipid nanoparticles technology in vaccines: Shaping the future of prophylactic medicine

Throughout decades, the intrinsic power of the immune system to fight pathogens has inspired researchers to develop techniques that enable the prevention or treatment of infections via boosting the immune response against the target pathogens, which has led to the evolution of vaccines. The recruitment of Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) as either vaccine delivery platforms or immunogenic modalities has witnessed a breakthrough recently, which has been crowned with the development of effective LNPs-based vaccines against COVID-19. In the current article, we discuss some principles of such a technology, with a special focus on the technical aspects from a translational perspective. Representative examples of LNPs-based vaccines against cancer, COVID-19, as well as other infectious diseases, autoimmune diseases, and allergies are highlighted, considering the challenges and promises. Lastly, the key features that can improve the clinical translation of this area of endeavor are inspired.

Non-Viral Gene Delivery to Hepatocellular Carcinoma via Intra-Arterial Injection

Purpose

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has limited treatment options, and modest survival after systemic chemotherapy or procedures such as transarterial chemoembolization (TACE). There is therefore a need to develop targeted therapies to address HCC. Gene therapies hold immense promise in treating a variety of diseases, including HCC, though delivery remains a critical hurdle. This study investigated a new approach of local delivery of polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) via intra-arterial injection for targeted local gene delivery to HCC tumors in an orthotopic rat liver tumor model.

Methods

Poly(beta-amino ester) (PBAE) nanoparticles were formulated and assessed for GFP transfection in N1-S1 rat HCC cells in vitro. Optimized PBAE NPs were next administered to rats via intra-arterial injection with and without orthotopic HCC tumors, and both biodistribution and transfection were assessed.

Results

In vitro transfection of PBAE NPs led to >50% transfected cells in adherent and suspension culture at a variety of doses and weight ratios. Administration of NPs via intra-arterial or intravenous injection demonstrated no transfection of healthy liver, while intra-arterial NP injection led to transfection of tumors in an orthotopic rat HCC model.

Conclusion

Hepatic artery injection is a promising delivery approach for PBAE NPs and demonstrates increased targeted transfection of HCC tumors compared to intravenous administration, and offers a potential alternative to standard chemotherapies and TACE. This work demonstrates proof of concept for administration of polymeric PBAE nanoparticles via intra-arterial injection for gene delivery in rats.

Innovative System for Delivering Nucleic Acids/Genes Based on Controlled Intracellular Trafficking as Well as Controlled Biodistribution for Nanomedicines

This review paper summarizes progress that has been made in the new field of "Controlled Intracellular Trafficking." This involves the development of new systems for delivering plasmid DNA (pDNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), mRNA, proteins, their escape from endosomes, the mechanism for how they enter the nucleus, how they enter mithochondria and how materials subsequently function within a cell. In addition, strategies for delivering these materials to a selective tissue after intravenous administration was also intensively investigated not only to the liver but also to tumors, lungs, adipose tissue and the spleen. In 2020, a new mRNA vaccine was developed against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), where ionizable cationic lipids were used as a delivery system. Our strategy to identify an efficient ionizable cationic lipids (iCL) based on a lipid library as well as their applications concerning the delivery of siRNA/mRNA/pDNA is also described.

Nanoparticle drug delivery systems for synergistic delivery of tumor therapy

Nanoparticle drug delivery systems have proved anti-tumor effects; however, they are not widely used in tumor therapy due to insufficient ability to target specific sites, multidrug resistance to anti-tumor drugs, and the high toxicity of the drugs. With the development of RNAi technology, nucleic acids have been delivered to target sites to replace or correct defective genes or knock down specific genes. Also, synergistic therapeutic effects can be achieved for combined drug delivery, which is more effective for overcoming multidrug resistance of cancer cells. These combination therapies achieve better therapeutic effects than delivering nucleic acids or chemotherapeutic drugs alone, so the scope of combined drug delivery has also been expanded to three aspects: drug-drug, drug-gene, and gene-gene. This review summarizes the recent advances of nanocarriers to co-delivery agents, including i) the characterization and preparation of nanocarriers, such as lipid-based nanocarriers, polymer nanocarriers, and inorganic delivery carriers; ii) the advantages and disadvantages of synergistic delivery approaches; iii) the effectual delivery cases that are applied in the synergistic delivery systems; and iv) future perspectives in the design of nanoparticle drug delivery systems to co-deliver therapeutic agents.

Self-homing nanocarriers for mRNA delivery to the activated hepatic stellate cells in liver fibrosis

Herein, we report on the development of a platform for the selective delivery of mRNA to the hard-to-transfect Activated Hepatic Stellate Cells (aHSCs), the fundamental player in the progression of liver fibrosis. Using a microfluidic device (iLiNP), we prepared a series of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) based on a diverse library of pH-sensitive lipids. After an in-depth in vivo optimization of the LNPs, their mRNA delivery efficiency, selectivity, potency, robustness, and biosafety were confirmed. Furthermore, some mechanistic aspects of their selective delivery to aHSCs were investigated. We identified a promising lipid candidate, CL15A6, that has a high affinity to aHSCs. Tweaking the composition and physico-chemical properties of the LNPs enabled the robust and ligand-free mRNA delivery to aHSCs in vivo post intravenous administration, with a high biosafety at mRNA doses of up to 2 mg/Kg, upon either acute or chronic administrations. The mechanistic investigation suggested that CL15A6 LNPs were taken up by aHSCs via Clathrin-mediated endocytosis through the Platelet-derived growth factor receptor beta (PDGFRβ) and showed a pKa-dependent cellular uptake. The novel and scalable platform reported in this study is highly promising for clinical applications.

Improved anti-hepatocellular carcinoma effect by enhanced Co-delivery of Tim-3 siRNA and sorafenib via multiple pH triggered drug-eluting nanoparticles

Effective systemic treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains urgently needed. Sorafenib is the first FDA-approved systemic treatment for HCC. However, individual HCC patents’ response to sorafenib varies greatly. How to enhance the anti-HCC effect of sorafenib is still a significant challenge. T cell immunoglobulin mucin-3 (Tim-3) is a newly identified immune checkpoint molecule and a promising target for HCC treatment. Herein, we developed a novel pH-triggered drug-eluting nanoparticle (CC@SR&SF@PP) for simultaneously delivery of Tim-3 siRNA and sorafenib to HCC in situ. By a single emulsification method, a representative HCC targeted-therapeutic drug sorafenib (SF) was encapsulated into the pH-triggered positive-charged mPEG5K-PAE10K (PP) nanoparticles, followed by condensing of negative-charged Tim-3 siRNA. Then, carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS), an amphoteric polysaccharide with negative charge in the physiological pH and positive charge in the acidic environment of the tumor, was eventually adsorbed onto the surface of nanoparticles. This co-delivery nanoparticle rapidly and specifically accumulated in the tumor site of the liver and enhanced the targeted, specific and multiple release of siRNA and sorafenib. Enhanced Tim-3 siRNA transfected into tumor cells can not only directly inhibit the growth of tumor cells by knock down the expression Tim-3, but also induce the immune response and enhance the recruitment of cytotoxic T cells to kill tumor cells. The following pH-triggered sorafenib release from SF@PP NPs greatly inhibited the tumor proliferation and angiogenesis, resulting in remarkable tumor growth inhibition in a mouse hepatoma 22 (H22) orthotopic tumor model. Thus, co-delivery of Tim-3 siRNA and sorafenib via this novel pH triggered drug-eluting nanoparticle enhances their anti-tumor efficacy. We expect that such combination treatment strategy will have great potential in future clinical applications.

Galactosylated Polymer/Gold Nanorods Nanocomposites for Sustained and Pulsed Chemo-Photothermal Treatments of Hepatocarcinoma

In this paper, we propose a rational design of a hybrid nanosystem capable of locally delivering a high amount of hydrophobic anticancer drugs (sorafenib or lenvatinib) and heat (hyperthermia) in a remote-controlled manner. We combined in a unique nanosystem the excellent NIR photothermal conversion of gold nanorods (AuNRs) with the ability of a specially designed galactosylated amphiphilic graft copolymer (PHEA-g-BIB-pButMA-g-PEG-GAL) able to recognize hepatic cells overexpressing the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) on their membranes, thus giving rise to a smart composite nanosystem for the NIR-triggered chemo-phototherapy of hepatocarcinoma. In order to allow the internalization of AuNRs in the hydrophobic core of polymeric nanoparticles, AuNRs were coated with a thiolated fatty acid (12-mercaptododecanoic acid). The drug-loaded hybrid nanoparticles were prepared by the nanoprecipitation method, obtaining nanoparticles of about 200 nm and drug loadings of 9.0 and 5.4% w/w for sorafenib and lenvatinib, respectively. These multifunctional nanosystems have shown to convert NIR radiation into heat and release charged drugs in a remote-controlled manner. Then, the biocompatibility and synergistic effects of a chemo-phototherapy combination, as well the receptor-mediated internalization, were evaluated by an in vitro test on HepG2, HuH7, and NHDF. The results indicate that the proposed nanoparticles can be considered to be virtuous candidates for an efficient and selective dual-mode therapy of hepatocarcinoma.

Efficient Delivery of P3H4 siRNA and Chlorin e6 by cRGDfK-Installed Polyarginine Nanoparticles for Tumor-Targeting Therapy of Bladder Cancer

Purpose: Prolyl 3-hydroxylase family member 4 (P3H4) is a potent prognostic oncogene in bladder cancer (BC), and the inhibition of P3H4 suppresses BC tumor growth. This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of P3H4 inhibition for BC tumor therapy via tumor-targeting nanoparticles. Methods and results: A linear polyarginine peptide (R9) was synthesized, azide-modified, and then assembled with cyclic pentapeptide cRGDfK. Chlorin e6 (ce6)-conjugated CH3-R9-RGD nanoparticles were prepared for the delivery of siP3H4 into T24 cells in vitro and BC tumors in vivo. Dynamic light scattering analysis identified that the optimum CH3-R9-RGD@siP3H4 molar ratio was 30/1. CH3-R9-RGD@ce6/siP3H4 nanocomposites decreased P3H4 expression and cell proliferation and promoted reactive oxygen species production, apoptosis, and calreticulin exposure in T24 cells in vitro. In vivo experiments showed that CH3-R9-RGD@ce6/siP3H4 nanocomposites caused pathological changes, suppressed BC tumor growth, promoted caspase 3 expression, and enhanced calreticulin exposure in tumor cells. Conclusions: The tumor-targeting CH3-R9-RGD nanocomposites encapsulating siP3H4 and ce6 might be an alternative therapeutic strategy or intravesical instillation chemotherapy for BC.

Ultrasound-mediated in vivo biodistribution of coumarin-labeled sorafenib-loaded liposome-based nanotheranostic system

Aim: This study aimed to synthesize folate-conjugated sorafenib-loaded (FCSL) liposomes for theranostic application using ultrasound (US). Materials & methods: US parameter optimization, in vitro release, anticancer effect, in vivo biodistribution, optical imaging and biocompatibility of liposomes were studied. Results: With 84% in vitro release after 4 min of US exposure at 3 MHz (1.2 mechanical index), FCSL liposomes showed lower IC₅₀ (8.70 μM) versus sorafenib (9.34 μM) against HepG2 cells. In vivo biodistribution of FCSL liposomes versus sorafenib after 9 mg/kg injection in the liver (8.63 vs 0.55) > intestine (8.45 vs 1.07) > stomach (5.62 vs 0.57) > kidney (5.46 vs 0.91) showed longer circulation time in plasma and can be tracked in mice. Conclusion: A threefold higher drug concentration in the liver in US-exposed mice makes this a successful nanotheranostic approach.

Microfluidic Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

Nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted tremendous interest in drug delivery in the past decades. Microfluidics offers a promising strategy for making NPs for drug delivery due to its capability in precisely controlling NP properties. The recent success of mRNA vaccines using microfluidics represents a big milestone for microfluidic NPs for pharmaceutical applications, and its rapid scaling up demonstrates the feasibility of using microfluidics for industrial-scale manufacturing. This article provides a critical review of recent progress in microfluidic NPs for drug delivery. First, the synthesis of organic NPs using microfluidics focusing on typical microfluidic methods and their applications in making popular and clinically relevant NPs, such as liposomes, lipid NPs, and polymer NPs, as well as their synthesis mechanisms are summarized. Then, the microfluidic synthesis of several representative inorganic NPs (e.g., silica, metal, metal oxide, and quantum dots), and hybrid NPs is discussed. Lastly, the applications of microfluidic NPs for various drug delivery applications are presented.

Interval- and cycle-dependent combined effect of STING agonist loaded lipid nanoparticles and a PD-1 antibody

Programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) blockade combination to other drugs have attracted the interest of scientists for treating tumors resistant to PD-1 blockade. In this study, the impact of the interval, order of administration, and number of cycles of immunotherapeutic combination of stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway agonist loaded lipid nanoparticle (STING-LNP) and PD-1 antibody for inducing the optimal combined antitumor activity against a melanoma lung metastasis is reported. One cycle had no effect, but two and three cycles resulted in a combinedantitumor effect. The interval between the administration was found to influence the induction of the combined effect. The second and third doses increased the gene expression of the NK cell activation marker, interferon γ (IFN-γ), PD-1 and a ligand of PD-1 (PD-L1), whereas the first dose failed. NK cells in the lung showed an increase in the expression of the activation markers and PD-1 after the second dose. The combined antitumor effect of this combination therapy against melanoma lung metastasis model could be dependent on the interval as well as the number of doses of STING-LNP.These findings suggest the importance of the protocol setting when combining a nano system loaded with an immune adjuvant and PD-1 antibody.

Extrahepatic targeting of lipid nanoparticles in vivo with intracellular targeting for future nanomedicines

A new era of nanomedicines that involve nucleic acids/gene therapy has been opened after two decades in 21^st century and new types of more efficient drug delivery systems (DDS) are highly expected and will include extrahepatic delivery. In this review, we summarize the possibility and expectations for the extrahepatic delivery of small interfering RNA/messenger RNA/plasmid DNA/genome editing to the spleen, lung, tumor, lymph nodes as well as the liver based on our studies as well as reported information. Passive targeting and active targeting are discussed in in vivo delivery and the importance of controlled intracellular trafficking for successful therapeutic results are also discussed. In addition, mitochondrial delivery as a novel strategy for nucleic acids/gene therapy is introduced to expand the therapeutic dimension of nucleic acids/gene therapy in the liver as well as the heart, kidney and brain.

Merits and advances of microfluidics in the pharmaceutical field: design technologies and future prospects

Microfluidics is used to manipulate fluid flow in micro-channels to fabricate drug delivery vesicles in a uniform tunable size. Thanks to their designs, microfluidic technology provides an alternative and versatile platform over traditional formulation methods of nanoparticles. Understanding the factors that affect the formulation of nanoparticles can guide the proper selection of microfluidic design and the operating parameters aiming at producing nanoparticles with reproducible properties. This review introduces the microfluidic systems' continuous flow (single-phase) and segmented flow (multiphase) and their different mixing parameters and mechanisms. Furthermore, microfluidic approaches for efficient production of nanoparticles as surface modification, anti-fouling, and post-microfluidic treatment are summarized. The review sheds light on the used microfluidic systems and operation parameters applied to prepare and fine-tune nanoparticles like lipid, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based nanoparticles as well as cross-linked nanoparticles. The approaches for scale-up production using microfluidics for clinical or industrial use are also highlighted. Furthermore, the use of microfluidics in preparing novel micro/nanofluidic drug delivery systems is presented. In conclusion, the characteristic vital features of microfluidics offer the ability to develop precise and efficient drug delivery nanoparticles.

Biomedical Applications of Quantum Dots: Overview, Challenges, and Clinical Potential

Despite the massive advancements in the nanomedicines and their associated research, their translation into clinically-applicable products is still below promises. The latter fact necessitates an in-depth evaluation of the current nanomedicines from a clinical perspective to cope with the challenges hampering their clinical potential. Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductors-based nanomaterials with numerous biomedical applications such as drug delivery, live imaging, and medical diagnosis, in addition to other applications beyond medicine such as in solar cells. Nevertheless, the power of QDs is still underestimated in clinics. In the current article, we review the status of QDs in literature, their preparation, characterization, and biomedical applications. In addition, the market status and the ongoing clinical trials recruiting QDs are highlighted, with a special focus on the challenges limiting the clinical translation of QDs. Moreover, QDs are technically compared to other commercially-available substitutes. Eventually, we inspire the technical aspects that should be considered to improve the clinical fate of QDs.

Nanoparticle Delivery Platforms for RNAi Therapeutics Targeting COVID-19 Disease in the Respiratory Tract

Since December 2019, a pandemic of COVID-19 disease, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has rapidly spread across the globe. At present, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has issued emergency approval for the use of some antiviral drugs. However, these drugs still have limitations in the specific treatment of COVID-19, and as such, new treatment strategies urgently need to be developed. RNA-interference-based gene therapy provides a tractable target for antiviral treatment. Ensuring cell-specific targeted delivery is important to the success of gene therapy. The use of nanoparticles (NPs) as carriers for the delivery of small interfering RNA (siRNAs) to specific tissues or organs of the human body could play a crucial role in the specific therapy of severe respiratory infections, such as COVID-19. In this review, we describe a variety of novel nanocarriers, such as lipid NPs, star polymer NPs, and glycogen NPs, and summarize the pre-clinical/clinical progress of these nanoparticle platforms in siRNA delivery. We also discuss the application of various NP-capsulated siRNA as therapeutics for SARS-CoV-2 infection, the challenges with targeting these therapeutics to local delivery in the lung, and various inhalation devices used for therapeutic administration. We also discuss currently available animal models that are used for preclinical assessment of RNA-interference-based gene therapy. Advances in this field have the potential for antiviral treatments of COVID-19 disease and could be adapted to treat a range of respiratory diseases.

Clinical translation of nanomedicines: Challenges, opportunities, and keys

Despite the massive interest and recent developments in the field of nanomedicine, only a limited number of formulations have found their way to the clinics. This shortcoming reveals the challenges facing the clinical translation of this technology. In the current article, we summarize and evaluate the status, market situation, and clinical profiles of the reported nanomedicines, the shortcomings limiting their clinical translation, as well as some approaches designed to break through this barrier. Moreover, some emerging technologies that have the potential to compete with nanomedicines are highlighted. Lastly, we identify the key factors that should be considered in nanomedicine-related research to be clinically-translatable. These can be classified into five areas: rational design during the research and development stage, the recruitment of representative preclinical models, careful design of clinical trials, development of specific and uniform regulatory protocols, and calls for non-classic sponsorship. This new field of endeavor was firmly established during the last two decades and more in-depth progress is expected in the coming years.

Microfluidic technologies and devices for lipid nanoparticle-based RNA delivery

In 2021, mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 were approved by the Food and Drug Administration. mRNA vaccines are important for preventing severe COVID-19 and returning to normal life. The development of RNA-delivery technology, including mRNA vaccines, has been investigated worldwide for ~30 years. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are a breakthrough technology that stably delivers RNA to target organs, and RNA-loaded LNP-based nanomedicines have been studied for the development of vaccines and nanomedicines for RNA-, gene-, and cell-based therapies. Recently, microfluidic devices and technologies have attracted attention for the production of LNPs, particularly RNA-loaded LNPs. Microfluidics provides many advantages for RNA-loaded LNP production, including precise LNP size controllability, high reproducibility, high-throughput optimization of LNP formulation, and continuous LNP-production processes. In this review, we summarize microfluidic-based RNA-loaded LNP production and its applications in RNA-based therapy and genome editing.

Nanomedicine in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A New Frontier in Targeted Cancer Treatment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related death and is associated with a dismal median survival of 2-9 months. The fundamental limitations and ineffectiveness of current HCC treatments have led to the development of a vast range of nanotechnologies with the goal of improving the safety and efficacy of treatment for HCC. Although remarkable success has been achieved in nanomedicine research, there are unique considerations such as molecular heterogeneity and concomitant liver dysfunction that complicate the translation of nanotheranostics in HCC. This review highlights the progress, challenges, and targeting opportunities in HCC nanomedicine based on the growing literature in recent years.

New Applications of Lipid and Polymer-Based Nanoparticles for Nucleic Acids Delivery

Nucleic acids represent a promising lead for engineering the immune system. However, naked DNA, mRNA, siRNA, and other nucleic acids are prone to enzymatic degradation and face challenges crossing the cell membrane. Therefore, increasing research has been recently focused on developing novel delivery systems that are able to overcome these drawbacks. Particular attention has been drawn to designing lipid and polymer-based nanoparticles that protect nucleic acids and ensure their targeted delivery, controlled release, and enhanced cellular uptake. In this respect, this review aims to present the recent advances in the field, highlighting the possibility of using these nanosystems for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes towards combatting a broad range of infectious, chronic, and genetic disorders.

Engineering nanotheranostic strategies for liver cancer

The incidence and mortality of hepatocellular carcinoma have continued to increase over the last few years, and the medicine-based outlook of patients is poor. Given great ideas from the development of nanotechnology in medicine, especially the advantages in the treatments of liver cancer. Some engineering nanoparticles with active targeting, ligand modification, and passive targeting capacity achieve efficient drug delivery to tumor cells. In addition, the behavior of drug release is also applied to the drug loading nanosystem based on the tumor microenvironment. Considering clinical use of local treatment of liver cancer, in situ drug delivery of nanogels is also fully studied in orthotopic chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and ablation therapy. Furthermore, novel therapies including gene therapy, phototherapy, and immunotherapy are also applied as combined therapy for liver cancer. Engineering nonviral polymers to function as gene delivery vectors with increased efficiency and specificity, and strategies of co-delivery of therapeutic genes and drugs show great therapeutic effect against liver tumors, including drug-resistant tumors. Phototherapy is also applied in surgical procedures, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. Combination strategies significantly enhance therapeutic effects and decrease side effects. Overall, the application of nanotechnology could bring a revolutionary change to the current treatment of liver cancer.

Size-Dependent Drug Loading, Gene Complexation, Cell Uptake, and Transfection of a Novel Dendron-Lipid Nanoparticle for Drug/Gene Co-delivery

Dendron micelles have shown promising results as a multifunctional delivery system, owing to their unique molecular architecture. Herein, we have prepared a novel poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendron-lipid hybrid nanoparticle (DLNP) as a nanocarrier for drug/gene co-delivery and examined how the dendron generation of DLNPs impacts their cargo-carrying capabilities. DLNPs, formed by a thin-layer hydration method, were internally loaded with chemo-drugs and externally complexed with plasmids. Compared to generation 2 dendron DLNP (D2LNPs), D3LNPs demonstrated a higher drug encapsulation efficiency (31% vs 87%) and better gene complexation (minimal N/P ratio of 20:1 vs 5:1 for complexation) due to their smaller micellar aggregation number and higher charge density, respectively. Furthermore, D3LNPs were able to avoid endocytosis and subsequent lysosomal degradation and demonstrated a higher cellular uptake than D2LNPs. As a result, D3LNPs exhibited significantly enhanced antitumor and gene transfection efficacy in comparison to D2LNPs. These findings provide design cues for engineering multifunctional dendron-based nanotherapeutic systems for effective combination cancer treatment.

Non-viral nanoparticles for RNA interference: Principles of design and practical guidelines

Ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) is an innovative treatment strategy for a myriad of indications. Non-viral synthetic nanoparticles (NPs) have drawn extensive attention as vectors for RNAi due to their potential advantages, including improved safety, high delivery efficiency and economic feasibility. However, the complex natural process of RNAi and the susceptible nature of oligonucleotides render the NPs subject to particular design principles and requirements for practical fabrication. Here, we summarize the requirements and obstacles for fabricating non-viral nano-vectors for efficient RNAi. To address the delivery challenges, we discuss practical guidelines for materials selection and NP synthesis in order to maximize RNA encapsulation efficiency and protection against degradation, and to facilitate the cytosolic release of oligonucleotides. The current status of clinical translation of RNAi-based therapies and further perspectives for reducing the potential side effects are also reviewed.

Lipid-Based Nanoparticles in the Clinic and Clinical Trials: From Cancer Nanomedicine to COVID-19 Vaccines

COVID-19 vaccines have been developed with unprecedented speed which would not have been possible without decades of fundamental research on delivery nanotechnology. Lipid-based nanoparticles have played a pivotal role in the successes of COVID-19 vaccines and many other nanomedicines, such as Doxil® and Onpattro®, and have therefore been considered as the frontrunner in nanoscale drug delivery systems. In this review, we aim to highlight the progress in the development of these lipid nanoparticles for various applications, ranging from cancer nanomedicines to COVID-19 vaccines. The lipid-based nanoparticles discussed in this review are liposomes, niosomes, transfersomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers. We particularly focus on the innovations that have obtained regulatory approval or that are in clinical trials. We also discuss the physicochemical properties required for specific applications, highlight the differences in requirements for the delivery of different cargos, and introduce current challenges that need further development. This review serves as a useful guideline for designing new lipid nanoparticles for both preventative and therapeutic vaccines including immunotherapies.