Hyaluronic acid modified liposomes for targeted delivery of doxorubicin and paclitaxel to CD44 overexpressing tumor cells with improved dual-drugs synergistic effect

Molecular Dynamics Simulations Reveal Octanoylated Hyaluronic Acid Enhances Liposome Stability, Stealth and Targeting

Liposome-based drug delivery systems have been widely used in drug and gene delivery. However, issues such as instability, immune clearance, and poor targeting have significantly limited their clinical utility. Consequently, there is an urgent need for innovative strategies to improve liposome performance. In this study, we explore the interaction mechanisms of hyaluronic acid (HA), a linear anionic polysaccharide composed of repeating disaccharide units of d-glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine connected by alternating β-1,3 and β-1,4 glycosidic linkages, and its octanoylated derivates (OHA) with liposomes using extensive coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations. The octyl moieties of OHA spontaneously inserted into the phospholipid bilayer of liposomes, leading to their effective coating onto the surface of liposome and enhancing their structural stability. Furthermore, encapsulating liposome with OHA neutralized their surface potential, interfering with the formation of a protein corona known to contribute to liposomal immune clearance. Importantly, the encapsulated OHA maintained its selectivity and therefore targeting ability for CD44, which is often overexpressed in tumor cells. These molecular-scale findings shed light on the interaction mechanisms between HA and liposomes and will be useful for the development of next-generation liposome-based drug delivery systems.

Chemical modification of hyaluronic acid as a strategy for the development of advanced drug delivery systems

Hyaluronic acid (HA) has emerged as a promising biopolymer for various biomedical applications due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and intrinsic ability to interact with cell surface receptors, making it an attractive candidate for drug delivery systems and tissue engineering. Chemical modification of HA has opened up versatile possibilities to tailor its properties, enabling the development of advanced drug delivery systems and biomaterials with enhanced functionalities and targeted applications. This review analyzes the strategies and applications of chemically modified HA in the field of drug delivery and biomaterial development. The first part of the review focuses on the different methods and functional groups used for the chemical modification of HA, highlighting the impact of these modifications on its physicochemical properties, degradation behavior and interactions with drugs. The second part of the review evaluates the use of chemically modified HA in the development of advanced biomedical materials including nano- and microparticles, hydrogels and mucoadhesive materials with tailored drug release profiles, site-specific targeting and stimuli-responsive behavior. Thus, the review consolidates the current advances and future perspectives in the field of chemical modification of HA, underscoring its immense potential to drive the development of advanced drug delivery systems and biomaterials with diverse biomedical applications.

Hyaluronic acid-modified liposomes Potentiated in-vivo anti-hepatocellular carcinoma of icaritin

Introduction: Icaritin (ICT), a promising anti-hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) prenylated flavonoid, is hindered from being applied due to its low water solubility and high lipophilicity in poorly differentiated HCC which is associated with upregulation of CD44 isoforms. Thus, hyaluronic acid (HA), a natural polysaccharide with high binding ability to CD44 receptors, was used to formulate a modified liposome as a novel targeted ICT-delivery system for HCC treatment. Methods: The ICT-Liposomes (Lip-ICT) with and without HA were prepared by a combined method of thin-film dispersion and post-insertion. The particle size, polydispersity (PDI), zeta potential, encapsulation efficacy (%EE), drug loading content (%DLC), and in vitro drug release profiles were investigated for physicochemical properties, whereas MTT assay was used to assess cytotoxic effects on HCC cells, HepG2, and Huh7 cells. Tumor bearing nude mice were used to evaluate the inhibitory effect of HA-Lip-ICT and Lip-ICT in vivo. Results: Lip-ICT and HA-Lip-ICT had an average particle size of 171.2 ± 1.2 nm and 208.0 ± 3.2 nm, with a zeta potential of -13.9 ± 0.83 and -24.8 ± 0.36, respectively. The PDI resulted from Lip-ICT and HA-Lip-ICT was 0.28 ± 0.02 and 0.26 ± 0.02, respectively. HA-Lip-ICT demonstrated higher in vitro drug release when pH was dropped from 7.4 to 5.5, The 12-h release rate of ICT from liposomes increased from 30% at pH7.4 to more than 60% at pH5.5. HA-Lip-ICT displayed higher toxicity than Lip-ICT in both HCC cells, especially Huh7with an IC50 of 34.15 ± 2.11 μM. The in vivo tissue distribution and anti-tumor experiments carried on tumor bearing nude mice indicated that HA-Lip- ICT exhibited higher tumor accumulation and achieved a tumor growth inhibition rate of 63.4%. Discussion: The nano-sized Lip-ICT was able to prolong the drug release time and showed long-term killing HCC cells ability. Following conjugation with HA, HA-Lip-ICT exhibited higher cytotoxicity, stronger tumor targeting, and tumor suppression abilities than Lip-ICT attributed to HA-CD44 ligand-receptor interaction, increasing the potential of ICT to treat HCC.

Glycosylated nanoplatforms: From glycosylation strategies to implications and opportunities for cancer theranostics

Glycosylated nanoplatforms have emerged as promising tools in the field of cancer theranostics, integrating both therapeutic and diagnostic functionalities. These nanoscale platforms are composed of different materials such as lipids, polymers, carbons, and metals that can be modified with glycosyl moieties to enhance their targeting capabilities towards cancer cells. This review provides an overview of different modification strategies employed to introduce glycosylation onto nanoplatforms, including chemical conjugation, enzymatic methods, and bio-orthogonal reactions. Furthermore, the potential applications of glycosylated nanoplatforms in cancer theranostics are discussed, focusing on their roles in drug delivery, imaging, and combination therapy. The ability of these nanoplatforms to selectively target cancer cells through specific interactions with overexpressed glycan receptors is highlighted, emphasizing their potential for enhancing efficacy and reducing the side effects compared to conventional therapies. In addition, the incorporation of diagnostic components onto the glycosylated nanoplatforms provided the capability of simultaneous imaging and therapy and facilitated the real-time monitoring of treatment response. Finally, challenges and future perspectives in the development and translation of glycosylated nanoplatforms for clinical applications are addressed, including scalability, biocompatibility, and regulatory considerations. Overall, this review underscores the significant progress made in the field of glycosylated nanoplatforms and their potential to revolutionize cancer theranostics.

Multifunctional Liposomes Co-Modified with Ginsenoside Compound K and Hyaluronic Acid for Tumor-Targeted Therapy

Liposomes show promise for anti-cancer drug delivery and tumor-targeted therapy. However, complex tumor microenvironments and the performance limitations of traditional liposomes restrict clinical translation. Hyaluronic acid (HA)-modified nanoliposomes effectively target CD44-overexpressing tumor cells. Combination therapy enhances treatment efficacy and delays drug resistance. Here, we developed paclitaxel (PTX) liposomes co-modified with ginsenoside compound K (CK) and HA using film dispersion. Compared to cholesterol (Ch), CK substantially improved encapsulation efficiency and stability. In vitro release studies revealed pH-responsive behavior, with slower release at pH 7.4 versus faster release at pH 5. In vitro cytotoxicity assays demonstrated that replacing Ch with CK in modified liposomes considerably decreased HCT-116 cell viability. Furthermore, flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy showed a higher cellular uptake of PTX-CK-Lip-HA in CD44-high cells, reflected in the lower half maximal inhibitory concentrations. Overall, CK/HA-modified liposomes represent an innovative, targeted delivery system for enhanced tumor therapy via pH-triggered drug release and CD44 binding.

Key processes in tumor metastasis and therapeutic strategies with nanocarriers: a review

Cancer metastasis is the leading cause of cancer-related death. Metastasis occurs at all stages of tumor development, with unexplored changes occurring at the primary site and distant colonization sites. The growing understanding of the metastatic process of tumor cells has contributed to the emergence of better treatment options and strategies. This review summarizes a range of features related to tumor cell metastasis and nanobased drug delivery systems for inhibiting tumor metastasis. The mechanisms of tumor metastasis in the ideal order of metastatic progression were summarized. We focus on the prominent role of nanocarriers in the treatment of tumor metastasis, summarizing the latest applications of nanocarriers in combination with drugs to target important components and processes of tumor metastasis and providing ideas for more effective nanodrug delivery systems.

Nanoparticle-based materials in anticancer drug delivery: Current and future prospects

The past decade has witnessed a breakthrough in novel strategies to treat cancer. One of the most common cancer treatment modalities is chemotherapy which involves administering anti-cancer drugs to the body. However, these drugs can lead to undesirable side effects on healthy cells. To overcome this challenge and improve cancer cell targeting, many novel nanocarriers have been developed to deliver drugs directly to the cancerous cells and minimize effects on the healthy tissues. The majority of the research studies conclude that using drugs encapsulated in nanocarriers is a much safer and more effective alternative than delivering the drug alone in its free form. This review provides a summary of the types of nanocarriers mainly studied for cancer drug delivery, namely: liposomes, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, magnetic nanoparticles, mesoporous nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes and quantum dots. In this review, the synthesis, applications, advantages, disadvantages, and previous studies of these nanomaterials are discussed in detail. Furthermore, the future opportunities and possible challenges of translating these materials into clinical applications are also reported.

Construction of redox-sensitive liposomes modified by glycyrrhetinic acid and evaluation of anti-hepatocellular carcinoma activity

The aim of this study was to construct a bifunctional liposome with hepatic-targeting capacity by modifying with a targeting ligand and an intracellular tumor reduction response functional group to deliver drugs precisely to focal liver tissues and release them in large quantities in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. This could improve drug efficacy and reduce toxic side effects at the same time. First, the bifunctional ligand for liposome was successfully obtained by chemically synthesizing it from the hepatic-targeting glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) molecule, cystamine, and the membrane component cholesterol. Then the ligand was used to modify the liposomes. The particle size, PDI and zeta potential of the liposomes were determined with a nanoparticle sizer, and the morphology was observed by transmission electron microscopy. The encapsulation efficiency and drug release behavior were also determined. Further, the stability in vitro of the liposomes and the changes in the simulated reducing environment were determined. Finally, the antitumor activity in vitro and cellular uptake efficiency of the drug-loaded liposomes were investigated by performing cellular assays. The results showed that the prepared liposomes had a uniform particle size of 143.6 ± 2.86 nm with good stability and an encapsulation rate of 84.3 ± 2.1 %. Moreover, the particle size of the liposomes significantly increased and the structure was destroyed in a DTT reducing environment. Cellular experiments showed that the modified liposoes had better cytotoxic effects on hepatocarcinoma cells than both normal liposomes and free drugs. This study has great potential for tumor therapy and provides novel ideas for the clinical use of oncology drugs in dosage forms.

Hyaluronic Acid within Self-Assembling Nanoparticles: Endless Possibilities for Targeted Cancer Therapy

Self-assembling nanoparticles (SANPs) based on hyaluronic acid (HA) represent unique tools in cancer therapy because they combine the HA targeting activity towards cancer cells with the advantageous features of the self-assembling nanosystems, i.e., chemical versatility and ease of preparation and scalability. This review describes the key outcomes arising from the combination of HA and SANPs, focusing on nanomaterials where HA and/or HA-derivatives are inserted within the self-assembling nanostructure. We elucidate the different HA derivatization strategies proposed for this scope, as well as the preparation methods used for the fabrication of the delivery device. After showing the biological results in the employed in vivo and in vitro models, we discussed the pros and cons of each nanosystem, opening a discussion on which approach represents the most promising strategy for further investigation and effective therapeutic protocol development.

CD44-Targeted Nanocarrier for Cancer Therapy

Cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) is a cell surface glycoprotein overexpressed in varieties of solid tumors including pancreatic, breast, ovary, brain, and lung cancers. It is a multi-structural glycoprotein of the cell surface which is majorly involved in cell proliferation, cell-to-cell interaction, cellular migration, inflammation, and generation of immune responses. Numerous studies focus on the development of nanocarriers for active targeting of the CD44 receptor to improve efficacy of targeting chemotherapy and achieve precise chemotherapy by defining the release, uptake, and accumulation of therapeutic agents. The CD44 receptor has a selective binding affinity towards hyaluronic and chondroitin sulfate (CS). Taking this into consideration, this review focused on the role of CD44 in cancer and its therapy using several nanocarriers such as polymeric/non-polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimer, micelles, carbon nanotubes, nanogels, nanoemulsions etc., for targeted delivery of several chemotherapeutic molecules and nucleic acid. This review also illuminates the role of hyaluronic acid (HA) in cancer therapy, interaction of HA with CD44, and various approaches to target CD44-overexpressed neoplastic cells.

Opportunities in combinational chemo-immunotherapy for breast cancer using nanotechnology: an emerging landscape

INTRODUCTION

Breast carcinoma (BC) is one of the most frequent causes of cancer-related death among women, which is due to the poor response to conventional therapy. There are several complications associated with monotherapy for cancer, such as cytotoxicity to normal cells, multidrug resistance (MDR), side effects, and limited applications. To overcome these challenges, a combination of chemotherapy and immunotherapy (monoclonal antibodies, anticancer vaccines, checkpoint inhibitors, and cytokines) has been introduced. Drug delivery systems (DDSs) based on nanotechnology have more applications in BC treatment owing to their controlled and targeted drug release with lower toxicity and reduced adverse drug effects. Several nanocarriers, such as liposomes, nanoparticles, dendrimers, and micelles, have been used for the effective delivery of drugs.

AREAS COVERED

This article presents opportunities and challenges in BC treatment, the rationale for cancer immunotherapy, and several combinational approaches with their applications for BC treatment.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanotechnology can be used for the early prognosis and cure of BC. Several novel and targeted DDSs have been developed to enhance the efficacy of anticancer drugs. This article aims to understand new strategies for the treatment of BC and the appropriate design of nanocarriers used as a combinational DDS.

Recent Advancements of Stimuli-Responsive Targeted Liposomal Formulations for Cancer Drug Delivery

Liposomes have gained attention as a well-accepted nanocarrier for several chemotherapeutic drugs and are considered a drug delivery system of choice for a wide range of products. These amphipathic spherical vesicles primarily consist of one or more phospholipid bilayers, showing promise for drug delivery of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic components in addition to unique properties such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, low toxicity, and non-immunogenicity. Recent advances in liposomes are mainly centered on chemical and structural modification with the multifunctional approach to target the cancer cells activating the offensive mechanisms within the proximity of the tumors. Stimuli-responsive liposomes are a precisive approach to deliver and release chemotherapeutic drugs in the tumor site in a controlled fashion, thus reducing damage to normal tissues and preventing the side effects of the conventional chemotherapy regimen. The unique characteristics in the tumor microenvironment facilitate applying an endogenous stimulus (pH, redox potential, or enzymatic activity) to trigger the release of the drug, or external stimulus (heat or light) could be applied to tailor the drug release from liposomes. This review focuses on newer developments in stimuli-sensitive liposomal drug delivery systems designed to apply either exogenous (temperature, light, and magnetic field) or endogenous (pH changes, enzymatic triggers, or redox potential) approaches.

Strategies for Liposome Drug Delivery Systems to Improve Tumor Treatment Efficacy

In the advancement of tumor therapy, in addition to the search for new antitumor compounds, the development of nano-drug delivery systems has opened up new pathways for tumor treatment by addressing some of the limitations of traditional drugs. Liposomes have received much attention for their high biocompatibility, low toxicity, high inclusivity, and improved drug bioavailability. They are one of the most studied nanocarriers, changing the size and surface characteristics of liposomes to better fit the tumor environment by taking advantage of the unique pathophysiology of tumors. They can also be designed as tumor targeting drug delivery vehicles for the precise delivery of active drugs into tumor cells. This paper reviews the current development of liposome formulations, summarizes the characterization methods of liposomes, and proposes strategies to improve the effectiveness of tumor treatment. Finally, it provides an outlook on the challenges and future directions of the field. Graphical abstract.

Redox/pH-Responsive Biodegradable Thiol-Hyaluronic Acid/Chitosan Charge-Reversal Nanocarriers for Triggered Drug Release

Biodegradable nanoparticles and micelles are promising nanosystems for the targeted delivery of potent anticancer drugs. By using specialized polymers as nanocarriers, targeted drug delivery and release can be developed. We developed thiol-hyaluronic acid (HA-SH)/chitosan (CS) nanoparticles with redox/pH dual-responsiveness via electrostatic self-assembly followed by spontaneous chemical cross-linking. The nanoparticle surface charges were reversible through different HA-SH and CS mass ratios. Doxorubicin (DOX) was used as a model drug. Dual cross-linked nanoparticles with diameters of approximately 300 nm exhibited superior stability under physiological conditions compared with nanoparticles without disulfide cross-linking. DOX was loaded more efficiently into negative nanoparticles (45.7 wt%) than positive nanoparticles (14.2 wt%). Drug release from negative nanoparticles (ζ potential of approximately -20) was higher (87.8 wt%) at pH 4.5 and in the presence of 10 mM glutathione. Positive nanoparticles (ζ potential of approximately +20) showed the same trend, but the release rate was slower than that of negative nanoparticles. DOX-loaded HA-SH/CS particles were taken up by human breast cancer cells (SKBR3), and the loaded drug was released, exhibiting potential antitumor efficacy. The HA-SH/CS nanoparticles in this study were stable under physiological conditions and are promising candidates for the targeted delivery and release of anticancer drugs.

QbD Enabled Azacitidine Loaded Liposomal Nanoformulation and Its In Vitro Evaluation

Azacitidine (AZA), an inhibitor of DNA methyltransferase, is a commonly recognized drug used in clinical treatment for myelodysplastic syndrome and breast cancer. Due to higher aqueous solubility and negative log P of AZA causes poor cancer cell permeation and controlled release. The objective of the present study was to formulate and optimize AZA-loaded liposome (AZA-LIPO) for breast cancer chemotherapy by using Box Behnken design (BBD) and in vitro evaluation using MCF-7 cells. AZA-LIPO were prepared using a thin film hydration technique and characterization study was performed by using FTIR and DSC. The prepared formulations were optimized using BBD and the optimized formulation was further subjected for particle size, surface charges, polydispersity index (PDI), drug loading, entrapment efficiency, TEM, XRD, in-vitro drug release and hemolytic toxicity. The mean particle size of optimized AZA-LIPO was 127 nm. Entrapment efficiency and drug loading of AZA-LIPO was found to be 85.2% ± 0.5 and 6.82 ± 1.6%, respectively. Further, in vitro drug release study showed preliminary burst release in 2 h followed by a sustained release for 36 h in phosphate buffer at different pH (4.0, 5.5, and 7.4) as compared to free drug. Drug release was found to be pH dependent, as the pH was increased, the drug release rate was found to be low. Time-dependent cell viability assay exhibited significant higher cell viability and higher internalization than free AZA in MCF-7 cells. AZA-LIPO were more effective than the free AZA in reducing Bcl2 expression, while increasing pro-apoptotic Bax and caspase-3 activity. The result showed that the formulated biocompatible AZA-LIPO nano-formulations may be used as an efficient anti-cancer drug delivery system for the treatment of breast cancer after establishing preclinical and clinical studies.

Cholesterol-Conjugate as a New Strategy to Improve the Cytotoxic Effect of 5-Fluorouracil on Liver Cancer: Impact of Liposomal Composition

Purpose:

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a common liver malignancy, which has a low survival rate of all cancers. 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) is clinically recognized to treat HCC. However, the success of this therapy is highly limited due to rapid clearance and non- selective distribution. Cholesterol- conjugate (5-FUC) loaded liposomes proposed to facilitate the transport of 5-FUC into tumor cells via Low-Density Lipoprotein receptor (LDL receptor) that overexpressed in HCC. Thus, the aim of this study was to use 5-FUC loaded liposome as a promising strategy to combat HCC and improve the response of HCC to chemotherapy.

Methods:

5-FUC and 5-FU loaded liposomes were optimized based on Cholesterol (CHO) ratio and type of phospholipid to achieve a potential effect on HCC. Liposomes were prepared by the thin-film hydration method, and evaluated in terms of particle size, polydispersity, zeta potential, Entrapment Efficiency (EE), morphology, drug release and cytotoxicity.

Results:

The obtained liposomes had a suitable nano-range particle size with negative zeta potential, and acceptable EE%. In vitro drug release of 5-FUC loaded liposomes showed a lower cumulative release over 24 h as compared to 5-FU loaded liposomes. 5-FUC loaded liposomes exhibited a higher in vitro cytotoxic effect as compared to the free drug and 5-FU loaded liposomes against HepG2 cell lines after 48 h via MTT assay.

Conclusion:

These results concluded that 5-FUC loaded liposomes could be used as an alternative tactic to increase the therapeutic index of 5-FU and pave the way for potential clinical applications.

Mastering the Tools: Natural versus Artificial Vesicles in Nanomedicine

Naturally occurring extracellular vesicles and artificially made vesicles represent important tools in nanomedicine for the efficient delivery of biomolecules and drugs. Since its first appearance in the literature 50 years ago, the research on vesicles is progressing at a fast pace, with the main goal of developing carriers able to protect cargoes from degradation, as well as to deliver them in a time- and space-controlled fashion. While natural occurring vesicles have the advantage of being fully compatible with their host, artificial vesicles can be easily synthetized and functionalized according to the target to reach. Research is striving to merge the advantages of natural and artificial vesicles, in order to provide a new generation of highly performing vesicles, which would improve the therapeutic index of transported molecules. This progress report summarizes current manufacturing techniques used to produce both natural and artificial vesicles, exploring the promises and pitfalls of the different production processes. Finally, pros and cons of natural versus artificial vesicles are discussed and compared, with special regard toward the current applications of both kinds of vesicles in the healthcare field.

Targeted delivery of honokiol by zein/hyaluronic acid core-shell nanoparticles to suppress breast cancer growth and metastasis

Based on the antisolvent and electrostatic deposition methods, we fabricated zein/hyaluronic acid core-shell nanoparticles loaded with honokiol (HA-Zein-HNK), which could target delivery and enhance the therapeutic effect of the HNK. The prepared nanoparticles were found to have a mean size of 210.4 nm and negative surface charge. The HA-Zein-HNK nanoparticles exhibited improved antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic activities against 4T1 cells. Of note, the wound healing and transwell assessments indicated that the migration and invasion of 4T1 cells were markedly weakened by HA-Zein-HNK. Mechanistic insights revealed that HA-Zein-HNK downregulated the expressions of Vimentin and upregulated the expressions of E-cadherin. More importantly, an in vivo tissue distribution study demonstrated the excellent tumor target ability of HA-Zein. And these results correspond with the superior therapeutic efficacy of HA-Zein-HNK in 4T1 tumor bearing mice. In conclusion, we believe that HA-Zein nanoparticles may be served as a promising HNK delivery carrier for metastatic breast cancer therapy.

Hyaluronic acid-modified liposomal honokiol nanocarrier: Enhance anti-metastasis and antitumor efficacy against breast cancer

In an effort to enhance antitumor and anti-metastasis of breast cancer, honokiol (HNK) was encapsulated into hyaluronic acid (HA) modified cationic liposomes (Lip). The prepared HA-Lip-HNK had a spherical shape with a narrow size distribution. The enhanced antitumor efficacy of HA-Lip-HNK was investigated in 4T1 cells in vitro, wherein flow cytometry and confocal microscopy analysis revealed its HA/CD44-mediated greater cellular internalization. As anticipate, the significant cytotoxicity of the HA-Lip-HNK was also observed in 4T1 tumor spheroids. Furthermore, the superior prevention of tumor metastasis by HA-Lip-HNK was verified by in vitro anti-invasion, wound healing and anti-migration assessments, and in vivo bioluminescence imaging in pulmonary metastasis model. Finally, compared with unmodified liposomes, the HA-Lip-HNK exhibited higher tumor accumulation, and achieved a tumor growth inhibition rate of 59.5 %. As a result, the HA-Lip-HNK may serve as a promising tumor-targeted drug delivery strategy for the efficient therapy of metastatic breast cancer.