Transboundary air pollution from coal-fired power generation

Spatio-temporal distribution and source contributions of the ambient pollutants in Lucknow city, India

Clean air is imperative to the survival of all life forms on the planet. However, recent times have witnessed enormous escalation in urban pollution levels. It is therefore, incumbent upon us to decipher measures to deal with it. In perspective, the present study was carried out to assess PM10 and PM2.5 loading, metallic constituents, gaseous pollutants, source contributions, health impact and noise level of nine-locations, grouped as residential, commercial, and industrial in Lucknow city for 2019-21. Mean concentrations during pre-monsoon for PM10, PM2.5, SO2 and NO2 were: 138.2 ± 35.2, 69.1 ± 13.6, 8.5 ± 3.3 and 32.3 ± 7.4 µg/m3, respectively, whereas post-monsoon concentrations were 143.0 ± 33.3, 74.6 ± 14.5, 12.5 ± 2.1, and 35.5 ± 6.3 µg/m3, respectively. Exceedance percentage of pre-monsoon PM10 over National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) was 38.2% while that for post-monsoon was 43.0%; whereas corresponding values for PM2.5 were 15.2% and 24.3%. Post-monsoon season showed higher particulate loading owing to wintertime inversion and high humidity conditions. Order of elements associated with PM2.5 is Co < Cd < Cr < Ni < V < Be < Mo < Mn < Ti < Cu < Pb < Se < Sr < Li < B < As < Ba < Mg < Al < Zn < Ca < Fe < K < Na and that with PM10 is Co < Cd < Ni < Cr < V < Ti < Be < Mo < Cu < Pb < Se < Sr < Li < B < As < Mn < Ba < Mg < Al < Fe < Zn < K < Na < Ca. WHO AIRQ + ascertained 1654, 144 and 1100 attributable cases per 0.1 million of population to PM10 exposure in 2019-21. Source apportionment was carried out using USEPA-PMF and resolved 6 sources with highest percent contributions including road dust re-entrainment, biomass burning and vehicular emission. It is observed that residents of Lucknow city regularly face exposure to particulate pollutants and associated constituents making it imperative to develop pollution abetment strategies.

Source emission contributions to particulate matter and ozone, and their health impacts in Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia has been experiencing severe air pollution due to its substantial local emissions and transboundary air pollution (TAP), causing significant health impacts. While literature focused on air pollution episodes in Southeast Asia, we have yet to fully understand the contributions of local emission sectors and TAP to air quality in the region annually. Herein we employed air quality modeling with the species tagging method to first assess the contributions of source sectors and locations to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone (O3) in Southeast Asia and to hence quantify the resultant health impacts. Our results show that air pollutant exposure was associated with ∼ 900 thousand premature mortalities in Southeast Asia every year. Of which, 77 % and 23 % were due to local emissions and TAP in the region, respectively. ∼ 87 % of the premature mortalities due to local emissions were induced by PM2.5 exposure, whereas the remaining were due to O3 exposure. PM2.5-related health impacts were dominated by industrial (45 %) and residential (17 %) emissions, and O3-related impacts were mainly due to biogenic (40 %) and road transport (24 %) emissions. Furthermore, the health impacts of TAP were particularly adverse in Brunei, East Timor, Singapore, Laos, and border regions.

Bi-decadal trend of atmospheric emissions from thermal power plants in Mainland Southeast Asia: Implications on acid deposition and climate change Mitigation

Steady increase in electricity generation and heavy reliance on coal in Mainland Southeast Asia (M-SEA) create huge pressure on the environment. This study used information collected from individual thermal power plants (TPPs) in M-SEA to calculate emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHG) for 2010, 2015 and 2019. The emissions were projected to 2030 following the latest national Power Development Plans. The emission results were analyzed in relation to the power development by country and fuel type, and environmental impacts. The region collective annual TPP emissions in 2019, in Gg/yr, were 27 PM2.5, 77 PM10, 0.7 BC, 4.9 OC, 255 SO2, 451 NOx, 91 CO, 12 NMVOC, 0.4 NH3, 260 CO2, 13 CH4, and 26 N2O. Coal-fired TPPs dominated the emissions of most species while NG-fired contributed the largest amounts of NH3 and CH4. Bi-decadal increase in energy production from TPPs of nearly 3 times is accompanied by 2.7 times increase in emissions. The 2010-2019 period saw average emissions increase by 1.9 times (TPPs' energy production increased 1.6 times), slightly higher than the rate of 1.4 times projected for 2019-2030 (double TPPs' energy production). The current intrusion rate of renewable energy accompanied by phasing-out of old TPPs are still by far insufficient to reverse the emission trend. Aggressive power development in Vietnam with its heavy coal reliance made it the largest emitter in 2019 and the projected for 2030, followed by Thailand. Spatially, higher emissions are seen over locations of large coal-fired TPPs in Vietnam and Thailand. Available rainwater composition monitoring data showed higher deposition amounts of sulfate and nitrate in areas located near or downwind of large TPPs. Significant GHG emissions projected for TPPs in 2030 indicated that TPPs should be the priority for emission reduction to achieve Nationally Determined Contribution targets. Emission database produced by this study can be used in dispersion modeling studies to assess impacts of TPPs on air quality, health, and acid deposition.

Smart solutions for clean air: An AI-guided approach to sustainable industrial pollution control in coal-fired power plant

Conventional fossil fuels are relied on heavily to meet the ever-increasing demand for energy required by human activities. However, their usage generates significant air pollutant emissions, such as NOx, SOx, and particulate matter. As a result, a complete air pollutant control system is necessary. However, the intensive operation of such systems is expected to cause deterioration and reduce their efficiency. Therefore, this study evaluates the current air pollutant control configuration of a coal-powered plant and proposes an upgraded system. Using a year-long dataset of air pollutants collected at 30-min intervals from the plant's telemonitoring system, untreated flue gas was reconstructed with a variational autoencoder. Subsequently, a superstructure model with various technology options for treating NOx, SOx, and particulate matter was developed. The most sustainable configuration, which included reburning, desulfurization with seawater, and dry electrostatic precipitator, was identified using an artificial intelligence (AI) model to meet economic, environmental, and reliability targets. Finally, the proposed system was evaluated using a Monte Carlo simulation to assess various scenarios with tightened discharge limits. The untreated flue gas was then evaluated using the most sustainable air pollutant control configuration, which demonstrated a total annual cost, environmental quality index, and reliability indices of 44.1 × 106 USD/year, 0.67, and 0.87, respectively.

Environmental impacts and optimization simulation of aerobic anaerobic combination treatment technology for food waste with life cycle assessment

After the implementation of waste sorting policy in Shanghai, the amount of food waste (FW) separation and treatment demand has increased significantly. It is necessary to establish the life cycle assessment (LCA) to assess the environmental impacts of various treatment technologies comprehensively, thus provide support for sorting, recycling, treatment and disposal strategies of FW. In this study, a local FW treatment plant in Shanghai, using typically aerobic anaerobic combination treatment technology was selected to analyze the environmental impacts with LCA. The process mainly included pretreatment, power, aerobic composting, anaerobic digestion, and further process systems. LCA results showed that the environmental impacts mainly came from the power and aerobic composting systems on the fine particulate matter formation and eutrophication, and freshwater ecotoxicity and terrestrial acidification, respectively. Considering the carbon footprint, the aerobic composting system contributed 3.61E + 02 kg CO₂ eq and represented the largest source of carbon emission. The soil conditioner yielded both environmental benefits on eutrophication and terrestrial ecotoxicity, and ecological benefits of 75.33 million CNY per year being the major revenue for the treatment plant. It also suggested that the biogas generation capacity of anaerobic digestion could be increased to achieve electricity self-sufficiency, thus save about 7.12 million CNY per year in electricity costs, and avoid corresponding environmental impacts caused by coal-fired. In summary, the aerobic anaerobic combination treatment could be further optimized and applied in FW treatment to reduce the environmental impacts, and enhance resource recovery and secondary pollution control.

Source Contributions to PM2.5-Related Mortality and Costs: Evidence for Emission Allocation and Compensation Strategies in China

The emissions from various pollution sources were not proportional to their contributions to ambient PM_2.5 concentrations and associated health burdens. That means even with the same total abatement targets, different abatement allocation strategies across emission sources can have distinct health benefits. Insufficient knowledge of various sources' contributions to health burdens in China, the country suffering substantial PM_2.5-related deaths, hindered the government from seeking optimized abatement allocation strategies. In this context, we separated the contributions of 155 emission sources (31 provinces × 5 sectors) to PM_2.5-related mortality across China in 2017 by coupling the Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extensions (CAMx), Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF), and health impact assessment model. We further identified the priority-control emission sources and quantified interprovincial ecological compensation volumes to alleviate inequality induced by emission allocation strategies. Results showed that PM_2.5 pollution caused 899,443 excess deaths and around 127 billion USD costs in 2017. Approximately half of the deaths and costs were attributable to emissions from sources outside the boundary of the regions where the deaths occurred. Twenty-five out of 155 emission sources that contributed to the top 60% mortality burdens and had high marginal abatement efficiencies in China shall be the priority-control emission sources. A 1 μg/m³ decrease of PM_2.5 concentration in regions where these key emission sources occur shall be compensated by 76-153 million USD in their receptor regions. Our study sheds light on the sources' contributions to mortality burdens and costs and provides scientific evidence for optimizing the emission allocation and compensation strategies in China. It also has wide implications for other countries suffering similar problems.

Transmission paths and source areas of near-surface ozone pollution in the Yangtze River delta region, China from 2015 to 2021

Near-ground ozone in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) region has become one of the main air pollutants that threaten the health of residents. However, to date, the transport behavior and source areas of ozone in the YRD region have not been systematically analyzed. In this study, by combining the ozone observational record with a HYSPLIT (hybrid single-particle Lagrangian integrated trajectory) model, we tried to reveal the spatiotemporal regularity of the airflow transport trajectory of ozone. Spatially, high ozone concentrations mainly clustered in industrial cities and resource-based cities. Temporally, the center of the ozone pollution shifted westward of Nanjing from 2015 to 2021. With the passage of time, the influence of meteorological elements on the ozone concentration in the YRD region gradually weakened. Marine atmosphere had the most significant impact on the transmission path of ozone in Shanghai, of which the trajectory frequency in 2021 accounted for 64.21% of the total frequency. The transmission trajectory of ozone in summer was different from that in other seasons, and its transmission trajectory was mainly composed of four medium-distance transmission paths: North China-Bohai Sea, East China Sea-West Pacific Ocean, Philippine Sea, and South China Sea-South China. The contribution source areas mainly shifted to the southeast, and the emission of pollutants from the Shandong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula-Japan, and the Philippine Sea-Taiwan area increased the impact of ozone pollution in the Shanghai area from 2019 to 2021. This study identified the regional transport path of ozone in the YRD region and provided a scientific reference for the joint prevention and control of ozone pollution in this area.

An assessment of aerosol optical depth over three AERONET sites in South Africa during the year 2020

It is important to notice that the world health organization (WHO) on  the 11th of March 2020,  declared COVID-19 a global pandemic and in response governments around the world introduced lockdowns that restricted human and traffic movements including South Africa. This pandemic resulted in a total lockdown from 26 March until 16 April 2020 in South Africa with expected  decrease in atmospheric aerosols. In this present study,  the aerosol optical depth (AOD) over Southern Africa based on ground-based remotely sensed data derived from three AERONET sites (Durban, Skukuza and Upington) during 2020 were used to detrermine the restriction resopnse on atmospheric aerosol pollution  The study used data from 2019, 2018 and 2017  as base years. The AERONET derived data was complemented with the HYSPLIT Model and NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data. The study findings show that peak increase of AOD corresponds to Angstrom exponent (AE) enhancement for two sites Durban and Skukuza during winter (JJA) while the Upington site showed a different trend where peak AOD were observed in spring (SON). The study also observed the influence of long transport airmasses particularly those originating from the Atlantic and Indian ocean moreso for the Durban and Skukuza sites (summer and autumn) thus these sites received fresh marine aerosols however this was not the case for Upington which fell under the influence of short-range inland airmasses and was likely to receive anthropogenic and dust aerosols. The major results  suggest that the lockdowns did not translate into a significant decrease in AOD levels compared to previous immediate years. The results has presented restriction response of AOD over South Africa but additional analysis is required using more locations to compare results.

A benefit allocation model for the joint prevention and control of air pollution in China: In view of environmental justice

The benefit allocation of fair and justice is an inevitable guarantee for the long-term operation of the joint prevention and control of air pollution (JPCAP). The ignorance of interest demands of various governance subjects in the existing benefit allocation mechanism results in the widespread "free rider" behavior in the joint control and unsatisfactory effects of JPCAP. Given this, it is imperative to build a reasonable benefit allocation model. The innovation of this paper is proposing a benefit allocation model of JPCAP to achieve the symmetry between control costs and benefits based on environmental justice. The control objectives and total benefits of JPCAP are calculated through the adjustment of optimal removal rates. The interest demands of various control subjects and benefit compensation scheme are clarified by adopting an improved Shapley method, which comprehensively considers factors affecting environmental justice. An empirical analysis is conducted on SO₂ governance in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) and its surrounding areas. The results show that the benefit allocation model based on environmental justice can not only accurately evaluate the benefits of joint control, but also effectively achieve the symmetry between control costs and benefits. This study provides a scientific and reasonable theoretical basis for the benefit allocation of SO₂ control and can be extended to the researches and practices of other air pollutants control.

Migration and diffusion characteristics of air pollutants and meteorological influences in Northwest China: a case study of four mining areas

In the process of exploiting mineral resources, dust enters the environment through air suspended particles and surface runoff, which has a serious impact on the atmospheric environment and human health. From all-year and seasonal scenarios, the migration trajectories and cumulative concentration based on the secondary development of Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) in four mining areas (SF, BC, SJZ, and MJT) in Northwest China are studied. The convergent cross mapping (CCM) method is used to study the causal relationship between concentration and meteorological factors. In this process, the problem of missing non-station meteorological data is solved with the help of the inverse distance weighted interpolation method, and the problem in which the convergence requirements of the CCM algorithm cannot meet the requirements is solved with the bootstrap method. The results indicated that the short path has the characteristics of slow movement, short migration path, low altitude(< 1 km), and high contribution rate, while the long path has the opposite characteristics. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that the concentration is centered on the pollution source and diffuses around, with a diffusion radius of 220-270 km, showing a serious pollution center and slight gradient settlement on the edge, but the overall distribution of accumulated concentration is uneven. The results also show that temperature (TEMP and S_TEMP), evaporation, and air pressure are the main meteorological factors affecting the all-year concentration. The concentration and meteorological factors in the four mining areas also show significant seasonal characteristics, and the correlation in spring, summer, and autumn is stronger than that in winter. This study not only provides a reference for the green and sustainable exploitation of mineral resources but also provides theoretical support for the joint prevention and control of transboundary pollution.

Monsoon climate controls metal loading in global hotspot region of transboundary air pollution

Eastern Asia is a major source of global air pollution. The distribution and intensity of these emissions are becoming well characterized, but their impact on the earth surface considering regional hydroclimatological settings has yet to be quantified. Here we show high-resolution spatiotemporal trace metal distributions of precipitation samples collected throughout the Japanese archipelago in 2013, when the world's coal consumption was the greatest, to depict the mass transportation and deposition of pollution. The results show that metals emitted through coal combustion transported from the continent via prevailing wind were intensively deposited along the western coast of the archipelago during winter due to heavy snowing, resulting in lead (Pb) concentration of precipitations exceed the critical level (> 10 μg l^-1). About 1497 tons of Pb of continental origin loaded through wet deposition accounted for over ca. 87% of the total annual flux in 2013, which constituted ca. 18.5% of the total emissions from China in 2012. This study presents the first detailed picture of monsoon climate-controlled atmospheric metal transportation and loading in the hotspot region after the phase-out of leaded gasoline in the twentieth century. The dataset can serve as a base for evaluating the effect of countermeasures implemented recent year.

Impacts of coal-fired power plants for energy generation on environment and future implications of energy policy for Turkey

Turkish government aimed to increase the installed capacities of coal-fired power plants (CFPPs) according to several policies and strategic plans published in recent years. Energy production from CFPPs and subsidizing the coal sector were selected for reducing the import dependency as a cheaper option. CFPPs with gaseous emissions as well as fly ash and fine dust, along with ash storage, coal storage, and coal mining operations and water use for cooling of the plants, affect the environmental quality. Hence, the health of inhabitants of the environment is affected. CFPPs to be built, according to strategic plans, will emit a significant amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and would severely undermine the targets for a 1.5 ℃ or 2 ℃ warmer world. Subsidies to the coal sector, along with exemptions from environmental regulations, combined with slower growth of energy production from renewable energy sources (RES), may lead to a path dependence on coal, while the rest of the world increases their energy production from RES. This study demonstrates the concrete examples of pollution caused by CFPPs in Turkey, along with health effects with the addition of policy context toward utilization of CFPPs, to point out the risks these plants constitute both for the environment and economy. Increasing the share of RES in the energy mixture is particularly important for Turkey due to being in a geographical region that is highly vulnerable to climate change effects. This study also briefly discusses how the increase of RES and de-carbonization in Turkey could be conducted in the short- and long-term, upon the literature provided.

In situ restoration of soil ecological function in a coal gangue reclamation area after 10 years of elm/poplar phytoremediation

The soil ecological health risks and toxic effects of coal gangue accumulation were examined after 10 years of elm/poplar phytoremediation. The changes in soil enzyme activities, ionome metabolism, and microbial community structure were analyzed at shallow (5-15 cm), intermediate (25-35 cm), and deep (45-55 cm) soil depths. Soil acid phosphatase activity in the restoration area increased significantly by 4.36-7.18 fold (p < 0.05). Soil concentrations of the metal ions Cu, Pb, Ni, Co, Bi, U, and Th were significantly reduced, as were concentrations of the non-metallic element S. The repair effect was shallow > middle > deep. The soil community structure, determined by 16S diversity results, was changed significantly in the restoration area, and the abundance of microorganisms increased at shallow soil depths. Altererythrobacter and Sphingomonas species were at the center of the microbial weight network in the restoration area. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that S and Na are important driving forces for the microbial community distributions at shallow soil depths. The KEGG function prediction indicated enhancement of the microbial function of the middle depth soil layers in the restoration area. Overall, phytoremediation enhanced the biotransformation of soil phosphorus in the coal gangue restoration area, reduced the soil content of several harmful metal elements, significantly changed the structure and function of the microbial community, and improved the overall soil ecological environment.

Air pollution and post-COVID-19 work resumption: evidence from China

To cope with the coronavirus disease (COVID-19), national or sub-national regions have carried out many powerful anti-pandemic measures such as locking down, which may improve their regional air quality. This paper examines the relation between regional air pollution and work resumption from a novel post-pandemic perspective. Using a unique panel dataset on China's detailed industrial electricity consumption, this paper does not find a positive relation between post-COVID-19 work resumption and regional air pollution during China's early-stage recovery. This result is obtained after controlling for province and date fixed effects, as well as local weather conditions. However, the positive relations are found in a particular sub-sample of large industrial enterprises and a particular sub-sample of April. These findings indicate that large industrial enterprises may recover first, and the resumption is progressing gradually. Finally, several policy implications are provided, which are essentially helpful for other countries' post-pandemic recovery.

Assessing Health Impacts of Winter Smog in Lahore for Exposed Occupational Groups

The goal of this research was to investigate the health effects of winter pollution on various occupations in Lahore and its neighboring peri-urban areas. A questionnaire survey, key informants, and focused group discussions were employed to collect data, which included demographic, socioeconomic, and health-related information. Descriptive statistics and the multivariate logistic regression model (MLRM) were used to examine the effects of pollution on exposed occupational groups who experienced symptoms such as coughing, shortness of breath, and eye discomfort. According to data from interviews, MLRM revealed that individuals working in various occupations with outdoor and indoor environments are equally affected by winter smog, but being middle-aged (odds ratio OR = 5.73), having a history of a respiratory ailment (OR = 4.06), and location (OR = 2.26) all play important roles in determining health. However, less educated people, elders, and people who already live in polluted areas are more likely to develop respiratory health symptoms. During the smog incident, it was determined that diverse health and socioeconomic factors exacerbate an individual’s negative health impact more than others.

How air pollution lowers the domestic value-added ratio in exports: an empirical study of China

This paper analyzes the theoretical mechanism and transmission channel for the impact of air pollution on firms' domestic value-added ratio (DVAR) in exports. Based on the matched Chinese Industrial Enterprises Database and China Customs Enterprise Database, the DVAR in exports is measured, and this mechanism is empirically tested with standard measurement methods. The study concludes that air pollution is not conducive to raising the DVAR during the sample period. This conclusion remains robust to many issues, such as endogeneity, measurement error, extension of the sample interval, substitution of the air pollution index, and policy changes. The impact of air pollution on the DVAR varies by the type of firm ownership, size, and age, as well as the size and location of the city. In addition, the negative impact of air pollution on the DVAR grows with increases in the PM2.5 concentration. The growing factor prices of domestic intermediate goods and the falling productivity due to air pollution are important transmission channels for the negative impact of air pollution on the DVAR. In order for firms to open up on all fronts through quality trade development, we recommend the prevention and control of air pollution, fueling internal driving forces for firms' independent innovation, and encouraging firms to target the medium- and high-end markets.

Environmental and Health Co-Benefits of Coal Regulation under the Carbon Neutral Target: A Case Study in Anhui Province, China

Coal regulation has been implemented throughout China. However, the potential benefits of pollution abatement and the co-benefits of residents’ health were rarely assessed. In this study, based on the analysis of historical coal consumption and multiple coal regulation measures in Anhui Province, China, four scenarios (Business as Usual (BU), Structure Optimization (SO), Gross Consumption Control (GC), and Comprehensive Measures (CM)) were constructed to indicate four different paths from 2020 to 2060, which is a vital period for realizing carbon neutrality. The results show that reductions of SO2, PM10, and PM2.5 emissions in the SO scenario are higher than those in the GC scenario, while the reduction of NOx emission is higher in the GC scenario. Compared with the BU scenario, residents’ health benefits from 2020 to 2060 are 8.3, 4.8, and 4.5 billion USD in the CM, GC, and SO scenarios, respectively, indicating that the achievements of coal regulation are significant for health promotion. Therefore, the optimization and implementation of coal regulation in the future is not only essential for the carbon neutrality target, but also a significant method to yield environmental and health co-benefits.

The impacts of human migration and city lockdowns on specific air pollutants during the COVID-19 outbreak: A spatial perspective

The outbreak of COVID-19 continues to bring unprecedented shock to mankind's socioeconomic activities, and to the wider environment. China, as the early epicenter of the pandemic, locked down one-third of its cities in an attempt to prevent the rapid spread of the virus. Human migration patterns have subsequently been radically altered and many regions have seen perceived improvements in air quality during the lockdowns. This study empirically examines the relationship between human migration and air pollution and further evaluates the causal impacts of the lockdowns. A spatial econometric method and a spatial explicit counterfactual framework are employed in this study. The key findings are as follows: i) a considerable amount of variation in AQI, PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and NO₂ concentration can be explained by human migration but we fail to find suggestive evidence in the cases of SO₂ and CO; ii) the implementation of lockdown measures led to a significant reduction in AQI (18.1%), PM_2.5 (22.2%), NO₂ (20.5%), and PM₁₀ (10.7%), but has no meaningful impacts on SO_2, CO and O₃ levels; iii) further analysis indicates that the impacts of lockdown policies varied by control stringency and by regional heterogeneity. Our findings are of great importance for the Chinese government to create a stronger and more coherent framework in its efforts to tackle air pollution.

Public Health Effects of Radioactive Airborne Effluents from Nuclear and Coal-Fired Power Plant

It has been well known that nuclear power plant and coal-fired power plant release some amount of radioactive materials during their normal operations. The purpose of this study was to compare radiation exposure doses to the public as a consequence of airborne effluents released from nuclear and coal-fired power plants under the normal operation. NRCDose3 was used to estimate radiation exposure doses to the public from gaseous effluents of nuclear power plant during its normal operation while CAP88-PC was used to calculate doses to the public living around coal-fired power plant. The results showed that radiation exposure doses from nuclear power plant were less than those from coal-fired power plant and regulatory annual limits. Effective dose by external exposure, skin equivalent dose, and organ equivalent dose from gaseous effluents of nuclear power plant were 2.93 × 10−4 mSv/y, 2.90 × 10−3 mSv/y, and 1.78 × 10−2 mSv/y, respectively. On the contrary, the corresponding effective dose by external exposure, external skin dose, and organ dose from coal-fired power plant were 1.13 × 10−2 mSv/y, 5.33 × 10−2 mSv/y, and 1.17 × 10−1 mSv/y, respectively.