Agreement and meaning: rethinking consensus analysis

Treating leishmaniasis in Amazonia, part 2: Multi-target evaluation of widely used plants to understand medicinal practices

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Leishmaniasis are widely distributed among tropical and subtropical countries, and remains a crucial health issue in Amazonia. Indigenous groups across Amazonia have developed abundant knowledge about medicinal plants related to this pathology.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We intent to explore the weight of different pharmacological activities driving taxa selection for medicinal use in Amazonian communities. Our hypothesis is that specific activity against Leishmania parasites is only one factor along other (anti-inflammatory, wound healing, immunomodulating, antimicrobial) activities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The twelve most widespread plant species used against leishmaniasis in Amazonia, according to their cultural and biogeographical importance determined through a wide bibliographical survey (475 use reports), were selected for this study. Plant extracts were prepared to mimic their traditional preparations. Antiparasitic activity was evaluated against promastigotes of reference and clinical New-World strains of Leishmania (L. guyanensis, L. braziliensis and L. amazonensis) and L. amazonensis intracellular amastigotes. We concurrently assessed the extracts immunomodulatory properties on PHA-stimulated human PBMCs and RAW264.7 cells, and on L. guyanensis antigens-stimulated PBMCs obtained from Leishmania-infected patients, as well as antifungal activity and wound healing properties (human keratinocyte migration assay) of the selected extracts. The cytotoxicity of the extracts against various cell lines (HFF1, THP-1, HepG2, PBMCs, RAW264.7 and HaCaT cells) was also considered. The biological activity pattern of the extracts was represented through PCA analysis, and a correlation matrix was calculated.

RESULTS

Spondias mombin L. bark and Anacardium occidentale L. stem and leaves extracts displayed high anti-promatigotes activity, with IC₅₀ ≤ 32 μg/mL against L. guyanensis promastigotes for S. mombin and IC₅₀ of 67 and 47 μg/mL against L. braziliensis and L. guyanensis promastigotes, respectively, for A. occidentale. In addition to the antiparasitic effect, antifungal activity measured against C. albicans and T. rubrum (MIC in the 16-64 μg/mL range) was observed. However, in the case of Leishmania amastigotes, the most active species were Bixa orellana L. (seeds), Chelonantus alatus (Aubl.) Pulle (leaves), Jacaranda copaia (Aubl.) D. Don. (leaves) and Plantago major L. (leaves) with IC₅₀ < 20 μg/mL and infection rates of 14-25% compared to the control. Concerning immunomodulatory activity, P. major and B. orellana were highlighted as the most potent species for the wider range of cytokines in all tested conditions despite overall contrasting results depending on the model. Most of the species led to moderate to low cytotoxic extracts except for C. alatus, which exhibited strong cytotoxic activity in almost all models. None of the tested extracts displayed wound healing properties.

CONCLUSIONS

We highlighted pharmacologically active extracts either on the parasite or on associated pathophysiological aspects, thus supporting the hypothesis that antiparasitic activities are not the only biological factor useful for antileishmanial evaluation. This result should however be supplemented by in vivo studies, and attracts once again the attention on the importance of the choice of biological models for an ethnophamacologically consistent study. Moreover, plant cultural importance, ecological status and availability were discussed in relation with biological results, thus contributing to link ethnobotany, medical anthropology and biology.

Ethno-medicinal and bio-cultural importance of aloes from south and east of the Great Rift Valley floristic regions of Ethiopia

There are 46 Aloe species identified from Ethiopia out of which 67.3% are endemics but comprehensive data on their ethno-medicinal and bio-cultural values are lacking. Interview, focus group discussion (FGD), and guided field walks were conducted with 210 respondents (152 men and 58 women). Relative frequency of citation (RFC_s), informants' consensus factor (F_ic), use value (UV_s), relative importance index (RI_s), and cultural value index (CV) were analyzed. Non-parametric Kruskal Wallis and Wilcoxon tests were performed using R software. Twenty-three Aloe species were recorded in the study areas with 196 use-reports and 2158 citations, grouped into six major use categories (N_UC = 6). Medicinal use categories accounted for 149 use-reports (76%) with 1607 citations. The species with the highest numbers of use-reports were Aloe megalacantha subsp. alticola, A. trichosantha subsp. longiflora and A. calidophila of which 87, 75 and 61.1% respectively were medicinal uses. Aloe calidophila has highest values in all indices UV (11.72), RFC (0.68), RI (0.89), and CV (6.2). Among Aloe parts, leaf exudate accounted for 111 use-reports (49.1%) of which 92.9% were used for medicinal purposes. Aloe retrospiciens and A. ruspoliana were reported poisonous to carnivores. F_ic values of the six major use categories ranged from 0.86 to 0.22. Elderly people (>60) had more knowledge than 25–40 and 41–60 age groups (Kruskal-Wallis chi-squared = 12.17, df = 3, p = 0.006), which is significant difference in depth of ethno-medicinal knowledge. Men had more knowledge of medicinal uses than women (Wilcoxon test, p = 0.002) significantly different, while women were knowledgeable than men for cultural uses like, cosmetic (Wilcoxon test, p = 0.06), not significantly different. The ways in which aloes are used and valued have implications for their future medicinal utility, which instigate detailed phytochemical and pharmacological studies.

The ethnopharmacological literature: An analysis of the scientific landscape

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The research into bioactive natural products originating from medicinal plants, fungi and other organisms has a long history, accumulating abundant and diverse publications. However no quantitative literature analysis has been conducted so far.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Here we analyze the bibliometric data of ethnopharmacology literature and relate the semantic content to the publication and citation data so that the major research themes, contributors, and journals of different time periods could be identified and evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Web of Science (WoS) was searched to identify relevant publications. The Analyze function of WoS and bibliometric software (VOSviewer) were utilized to perform the analyses.

RESULTS

Until the end of November 2018, 59,576 publications -linked to 'ethnopharmacology' indexed by WoS, published since 1958 in more than 5600 journals, and contributed by over 20,600 institutions located in more than 200 countries/regions, were identified. The papers were published under four dominating WoS categories, namely pharmacology/pharmacy (34.4%), plant sciences (28.6%), medicinal chemistry (25.3%), and integrative complementary medicine (20.6%). India (14.6%) and China (13.2%) were dominating the publication space. The United States and Brazil also had more than 8.0% contribution each. The rest of the top ten countries/regions were mainly from Asia. There were around ten-fold more original articles (84.6%) than reviews (8.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

Ethnopharmacological research has a consistent focus on food and plant sciences, (bio)chemistry, complementary medicine and pharmacology, with a more limited scientific acceptance in the socio-cultural sciences. Dynamic global contributions have been shifting from developed countries to economically and scientifically emerging countries in Asia, South America and the Middle East. Research on recording medicinal plant species used by traditional medicine continues, but the evaluation of specific properties or treatment effects of extracts and compounds has increased enormously. Moreover increasing attention is paid to some widely distributed natural products, such as curcumin, quercetin, and rutin.

Plants utilized as medicines by residents of Quilombo da Fazenda, Núcleo Picinguaba, Ubatuba, São Paulo, Brazil: A participatory survey

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Participatory research can help to broaden the understanding of medical systems and beliefs of traditional communities. An ethnopharmacological survey in collaboration with local people focused on plants used in quilombos located in Southeast Region in Brazil identified cultural factors that influence plant and recipe choice.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the factors related to the therapeutic efficiency of medicinal plants from the perspective of Quilombo da Fazenda residents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

University researchers collaborated with community residents for both aims and methods of the study. The local partners were trained in the gathering of ethnopharmacological data and then selected and interviewed the residents considered experts on the use of medicinal plants. Data on the use of each species were supported by voucher specimens collected by the local partners and university researchers. Participant observations and field diaries by the university researchers supplemented the data.

RESULTS

Eight interviewees mentioned 92 medicinal species with 60 therapeutic uses, applied in 208 recipes or remedies. Asteraceae (13 species), Lamiaceae (5) and Urticaceae (5) contributed most medicinal plant species. Of the 12 etic categories of use, the circulatory system category had the highest number of plants mentioned. Decoction was the most commonly used preparation method (66.8%), and most remedies were administered orally (76.4%). Eighty-six recipes included more than one plant species and/or the addition of other components, such as sugar, salt or animal products. Several cultural factors influence medicinal plant use. Popular beliefs on the quality of blood or the humoral properties of plants and illnesses, characteristics of the plants and other factors determine which plant is used and why.

CONCLUSIONS

The participatory method identified a large number of factors that influence medicinal plant use: the patient's blood type; the condition of the plant and the disease (hot-cold system); the route of administration and dosage; the preventive uses of the plants; and the influence of other factors, such as the sun, the moon and dew. The participatory approach is useful for gaining insight on the decision processes of medicinal plant use in traditional societies, and also for those communities wanting to document their knowledge with or without the participation of the academy.

Quantitative analysis of medicinal plants used to treat musculoskeletal ailments by non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Virudhunagar district, Tamil Nadu, India

Background

Siddha is one of the traditional medical systems of India; previous ethnobotanical survey in Virudhunagar district indicated a high consensus for treating musculoskeletal ailments.

Objectives

This study was aimed to quantitatively document the medicinal plants used to treat musculoskeletal ailments by non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Virudhunagar district, Tamil Nadu, India.

Materials and methods

This work was the outcome of free-list interviews conducted among 45 informants between April 2016 and January 2017. Sampling sufficiency was assessed by plotting Shannon–Wiener's index and cumulative number of UR. Informant consensus was assessed using Informant Consensus Factor (F_ic) and Informant Agreement Ratio (IAR).

Results

This study recorded the data regarding 116 plant species which were used to prepare 129 formulations; analysis of the data yielded 490 UR. Among these, 65.3% of UR dealt with internal applications and 34.6% dealt with external applications. In the case of internally used formulations, pain and general musculoskeletal ailments had high F_ic values. In the case of externally used formulations, headache and pain had high F_ic values.

Conclusion

Important species prescribed by the informants to treat various musculoskeletal ailments were: Azima tetracantha, Ricinus communis, Sesamum indicum, Moringa oleifera, Cardiospermum halicacabum (internal application), Calophyllum inophyllum, Justicia adhatoda, Curcuma longa, Calotropis gigantea, Zingiber officinale, Withania somnifera, Strychnos nux-vomica, Dodonaea viscosa (external application), Azadirachta indica, Clerodendrum phlomidis,Delonix elata, Pergularia daemia and Vitex negundo (internal and external applications). Robust studies on these local claims will help to improve the community healthcare and will yield some novel agents to treat musculoskeletal ailments.

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Siddha is one of major traditional medicinal systems of India.

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Non-institutional training is still major in siddha system of medicine.

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This survey documented the plants used to treat various musculoskeletal ailments.

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Though there were some scientific evidences; many local claims lack rigorous studies.

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Further studies will yield some useful clues for the management of various MSDs.

Treating leishmaniasis in Amazonia: A review of ethnomedicinal concepts and pharmaco-chemical analysis of traditional treatments to inspire modern phytotherapies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis are neglected tropical diseases that occur in all intertropical regions of the world. Amazonian populations have developed an abundant knowledge of the disease and its remedies. Therefore, we undertook to review traditional antileishmanial plants in Amazonia and have developed new tools to analyze this somewhat dispersed information.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A literature review of traditional remedies for cutaneous/mucocutaneous leishmaniasis in the Amazon was conducted and the data obtained was used to calculate distribution indexes designed to highlight the most relevant uses in Amazonia. The cultural distribution index represents the distribution rate of a given taxon among different cultural groups and was calculated as the ratio of the number of groups using the taxon to the total number of groups cited. The geographical distribution index allowed us to quantify spatial distribution of a taxon's uses in Amazonia and was calculated geometrically by measuring the average distance between the points where uses have been reported and the barycenter of those points. The general distribution index was defined as an arithmetic combination of the previous two and provides information on both cultural and spatial criteria.

RESULTS

475 use reports, concerning 291 botanical species belonging to 83 families have been gathered depicted from 29 sources. Uses concern 34 cultural groups. While the use of some taxa appears to be Pan-Amazonian, some others are clearly restricted to small geographical regions. Particular attention has been paid to the recipes and beliefs surrounding treatments. Topical application of the remedies dominated the other means of administration and this deserves particular attention as the main treatments against Neotropical leishmaniasis are painful systemic injections. The data set was analyzed using the previously defined distribution indexes and the most relevant taxa were further discussed from a phytochemical and pharmacological point of view.

CONCLUSIONS

The Amazonian biodiversity and cultural heritage host a fantastic amount of data whose systematic investigation should allow a better large-scale understanding of the dynamics of traditional therapies and the consequent discovery of therapeutic solutions for neglected diseases. Distribution indices are indeed powerful tools for emphasizing the most relevant treatments against a given disease and should be very useful in the meta-analysis of other regional pharmacopeia. This focus on renowned remedies that have not yet benefitted from extended laboratory studies, could stimulate future research on new treatments of natural origin for leishmaniasis.

Medicinal Plant Diversity and Inter-Cultural Interactions between Indigenous Guarani, Criollos and Polish Migrants in the Subtropics of Argentina

Numerous studies highlight the importance of phytotherapy for indigenous and non-indigenous people in different parts of the world. In this work we analyze the richness (number of species), diversity (plant identity and the number of illnesses for which it is used) and similarity of plant species and illnesses treated with them, in order to contribute new data and insight into the importance of plant medicines to the local medical systems of people living in Misiones province, in the subtropics of Argentina. Three sympatric groups were compared: Guarani Indians, Criollos (mestizos) and Polish migrants. Quantitative scrutiny was focused on both primary and secondary sources. The similarity and diversity of medicinal plants and uses between groups was calculated by applying the Sørensen quantitative coefficient and the Shannon-Wiener index, respectively. In order to identify the characteristic plant species used by each group, the Cultural Importance and Prevalence Value (CIPV) was calculated based on the species Indicator Value (IndVal), which combines a species relative abundance with its relative frequency of occurrence in the various groups, and modified according to the type of the analyzed data. The important finding is a great variation in the number of species used by the study groups. Altogether, 509 botanical species were registered: Guarani (397), Criollos (243) and Polish migrants (137). For all groups, the use of native medicinal plants prevailed. The Guarani appear to be the local experts in use of medicinal plants. There is the significant difference in the number of treated illnesses by each taxon among three groups. Criollos and Polish migrants exhibit the greatest similarity in illnesses treated with medicinal plants. These groups share a corpus of knowledge related to illness nosology, and have a symptomatic approach to illness treatment. The Guarani have an etiological approach to illness diagnosis and healing, which may be viewed as a barrier to the exchange of knowledge about home medicine with other ethnic groups of Misiones.

Global medicinal uses of Euphorbia L. (Euphorbiaceae)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Euphorbia (spurges, Euphorbiaceae) is the third largest genus of flowering plants, with almost 2000 species. Its exceptional diversity of growth forms and near-cosmopolitan distribution have attracted human interest since ancient times. For instance in Australia, topical application of latex of Euphorbia peplus L. is used as a home treatment for skin cancer and actinic keratosis. Its use in Australian folk medicine has inspired the release of the drug Picato® (ingenol mebutate), and further fostered interest in natural products and medicinal uses of Euphorbia in recent years.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To provide an indicative overview of medicinal uses of the genus Euphorbia driven by the recent interest in biologically active natural products from Euphorbia in drug discovery. We assess documented medicinal knowledge and value of the genus Euphorbia and the taxonomic distribution of this value.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We undertook an extensive survey of over 260 multidisciplinary publications on the online repository JSTOR using the search term "Euphorbia medicinal".

RESULTS

Medicinal uses were identified for >5% of the species in the genus, including descriptions of treatments for a variety of diseases. The most-cited medicinal uses around the world were treatments for digestive system disorders, skin ailments and, especially in the Southern hemisphere, infections. Consensus ratios indicated that the most-valued medicinal uses of Euphorbia species are in the treatment of digestive and respiratory complaints, inflammation and injuries, especially by members of Euphorbia subg. Chamaesyce.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study gives a first indicative overview of Euphorbia species used for health and wellbeing around the world. The exceptional diversity of the genus Euphorbia is not only represented by its growth forms but also by its diverse medicinal uses. Our results highlight the importance of research into medicinal uses of Euphorbia species and their importance as a source of natural products. Furthermore the medicinally highly valuable subgenus Chamaesyce was identified as chemically under-investigated, emphasizing the need for further studies investigating the chemical diversity to which the high medicinal value of Euphorbia subg. Chamaesyce can be attributed.

Context Effects in Western Herbal Medicine: Fundamental to Effectiveness?

Western herbal medicine (WHM) is a complex healthcare system that uses traditional plant-based medicines in patient care. Typical preparations are individualized polyherbal formulae that, unlike herbal pills, retain the odor and taste of whole herbs. Qualitative studies in WHM show patient-practitioner relationships to be collaborative. Health narratives are co-constructed, leading to assessments, and treatments with personal significance for participants. It is hypothesized that the distinct characteristics of traditional herbal preparations and patient-herbalist interactions, in conjunction with the WHM physical healthcare environment, evoke context (placebo) effects that are fundamental to the overall effectiveness of herbal treatment. These context effects may need to be minimized to demonstrate pharmacological efficacy of herbal formulae in randomized, placebo-controlled trials, optimized to demonstrate effectiveness of WHM in pragmatic trials, and consciously harnessed to enhance outcomes in clinical practice.

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Kenyan Leafy Green Vegetables, Wild Fruits, and Medicinal Plants with Potential Relevance for Kwashiorkor

Background. Inflammation, together with related oxidative stress, is linked with the etiology of kwashiorkor, a form of severe acute malnutrition in children. A diet rich in anti-inflammatory and antioxidant phytochemicals may offer potential for the prevention and treatment of kwashiorkor. We selected and assayed five leafy green vegetables, two wild fruits, and six medicinal plants from Kenya for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Consensus regarding medicinal plant use was established from ethnobotanical data. Methods. Antioxidant activity and phenolic content were determined using the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay and Folin-Ciocalteu procedure, respectively. Anti-inflammatory activity was assessed in vitro targeting the inflammatory mediator tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Results. Mangifera indica (leaves used medicinally) showed the greatest antioxidant activity (5940 ± 632 µM TE/µg) and total phenolic content (337 ± 3 mg GAE/g) but Amaranthus dubius (leafy vegetable) showed the greatest inhibition of TNF-α (IC₅₀ = 9 ± 1 μg/mL), followed by Ocimum americanum (medicinal plant) (IC₅₀ = 16 ± 1 μg/mL). Informant consensus was significantly correlated with anti-inflammatory effects among active medicinal plants (r² = 0.7639,  P = 0.0228). Conclusions. Several plant species commonly consumed by Kenyan children possess activity profiles relevant to the prevention and treatment of kwashiorkor and warrant further investigation.

The importance of cultural factors in the distribution of medicinal plant knowledge: a case study in four Basque regions

ETHNOBOTANICAL RELEVANCE

Previous research suggests that the use of medicinal plants by a given group is mainly driven by biological variables such as the chemical composition or the ecological distribution of plants. However, other studies highlight the importance of cultural aspects such as the curative meaning given to a plant, beliefs, religion or the historical context. Such aspects could play an important role in the use, diffusion or even in the effectiveness of a plant remedy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fieldwork consisted of 233 orally consented semi-structured interviews with 178 informants about medicinal uses of plants. Interviews were conducted in four historically and geographycally delimited regions of Alava and Biscay with similar environmental conditions but different sociolinguistic backgrounds: two regions were Basque- and two Spanish-speaking. Data were structured in use-reports. A Between Class Analysis was conducted to assess the intercultural and intracultural variability of medicinal plants knowledge.

RESULTS

The results show the existence of four clearly different medicinal ethnofloras. While the four ethnofloras share remedies widely distributed through the territory, each of them also includes remedies that are only shared among closely related communities. The ecological availability and chemical composition of the plants may explain why there are widely used plant remedies. On the contrary, the distribution of the locally shared remedies matches up with the cultural heterogeneity of the territory, so cultural factors, such as, language, social networks or the meaning response of the plants seem to explain the use of many traditional plant remedies. In Addition, we also found that Basque speaking territories show higher knowledge levels than Spanish speaking territories. In this sense, the development and reinforcement of Basque identity by Basque nationalism seems to have contributed to maintain the traditional knowledge in the Basque speaking regions.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the fact that pharmacological effectiveness and ecological availability are usually considered as the main variables that shape the traditional use of medicinal plants, our results suggest that cultural factors can be at least as important as ecological and chemical factors. In fact, differences in language, in the cultural meaning of the plants, in the context related to cultural identities, and in social networks seem to play a fundamental role in the use and diffusion and maintenance or erosion of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants in the study area.

Knowledge and uses of African pangolins as a source of traditional medicine in Ghana

Traditional medicine has been practised in Ghana for centuries with the majority of Ghanaians still patronising the services of traditional healers. Throughout Africa a large number of people use pangolins as a source of traditional medicine, however, there is a dearth of information on the use of animals in folk medicine in Ghana, in particular the use of pangolins. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalent use of pangolins and the level of knowledge of pangolin use among traditional healers in Ghana for the treatment of human ailments. Data was gathered from 48 traditional healers using semi-structured interviews on the traditional medicinal use of pangolin body parts in the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana. The cultural importance index, relative frequency of citation, informant agreement ratio and use agreement values were calculated to ascertain the most culturally important pangolin body part as well as the level of knowledge dissemination among traditional healers with regards pangolin body parts. Our study revealed that 13 body parts of pangolins are used to treat various medicinal ailments. Pangolin scales and bones were the most prevalent prescribed body parts and indicated the highest cultural significance among traditional healing practices primarily for the treatment of spiritual protection, rheumatism, financial rituals and convulsions. Despite being classified under Schedule 1 of Ghana's Wildlife Conservation Act of 1971 (LI 685), that prohibits anyone from hunting or being in possession of a pangolin, our results indicated that the use of pangolins for traditional medicinal purposes is widespread among traditional healers in Ghana. A study on the population status and ecology of the three species of African pangolins occurring in Ghana is urgently required in order to determine the impact this harvest for traditional medical purposes has on their respective populations as current levels appear to be unmonitored and unsustainable.

Ethnomedicinal use of African pangolins by traditional medical practitioners in Sierra Leone

BACKGROUND

Pangolins (Manidae) have long been used for traditional medicinal purposes in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa. However, very little is known about the extent of this use, the body parts that are used and the ailments these practices are attempting to cure or alleviate. Pangolin body parts are used extensively and frequently by traditional medical practitioners in Sierra Leone.

METHODS

A total of 63 traditional medical practitioners consented and were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires on the traditional medicinal use of pangolin body parts. The use value, informant agreement ratio and use agreement value for each pangolin part was calculated to ascertain the most sought after body part, the level of knowledge dissemination among traditional medical practitioners about body parts and the most culturally significant body part.

RESULTS

It was found that 22 pangolin parts are used to treat various ailments and conditions under 17 international categories of diseases. The highest use value was recorded for scales while eyes had the highest level of consensus among the traditional medical practitioners. The highest use value and informant agreement ratio for scales were recorded for spiritual ailments. Scales were the most culturally significant body part according to the use agreement value.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates a high importance value for pangolins as part of these communities' spiritual, cultural and medicinal beliefs. However, the numbers of individuals harvested from the wild remains unknown and unregulated even though pangolins have been listed under Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Conservation Act, 1972, of Sierra Leone, which prohibits any person from hunting or being in possession of pangolins. It is likely that this unregulated harvesting and poaching of this threatened species, for medicinal purposes, is unsustainable and there is an urgent need to determine pangolin population abundance within this region to ensure their sustainable harvesting for cultural use and conservation.

Quantitative ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants used by the Ati Negrito indigenous group in Guimaras island, Philippines

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study is (1) a documentation of medicinal plant use in traditional therapies, and (2) an evaluation of the medicinal plant knowledge and practices of the Ati Negrito indigenous people in Guimaras Island, Philippines.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A semi-structured interview was conducted to 65 informants in order to determine the medicinal plants and their uses in traditional therapies. The plants were collected, identified and deposited as voucher specimens. Plant importance was determined using quantitative ethnobotanical indices such as Use Value (UV), Fidelity Level (FL) and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF). Descriptive and the inferential statistics Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to measure and compare the informants׳ medicinal plant use knowledge and practices.

RESULTS

This study was able to identify 142 medicinal plant taxa in 55 families used in 16 categories of diseases. Plants with the highest recorded UVs were Psidium guajava (2.52), Blumea balsamifera (2.15) and Cocos nucifera (2.06). A total of 24 species were found to have 100% FL values with Senna alata, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and Breynia vitis-idaea recording the highest number of use-mentions (48) for treating white spot, boils, and child sleeplessness, malaise and fatigue, respectively. The highest ICF value (1.00) was cited for Category 6 (Diseases of the ear) and Category 16 (Factors that influence health status and services). Finally, significant differences in medicinal plant use knowledge were recorded when informants were grouped according to location, educational level, gender and age.

CONCLUSIONS

This documentation of medicinal plants and their uses shows the rich tradition in ethno-medicinal knowledge of the Ati Negrito indigenous people although results might also imply that knowledge is eroding. Nevertheless, this study could open an avenue for pharmacological research works, or serve as reference for future quantitative ethnobotanical investigations.

New categories for traditional medicine in the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard

The Economic Botany Data Collection Standard (EBDCS) has been successfully followed by ethnobotanists investigating plant uses in many parts of the world. However, we have encountered some cases in our study of traditional medicine where the standard seems incomplete and inaccurate when it is applied to plant uses of rural or indigenous societies in developing countries. We propose two categories to be added to the EBDCS: Cultural Diseases and Disorders, and Ritual/Magical Uses. Adding these categories, we believe will give a more accurate insight into traditional medicine and will contribute to developing an integrative ethnomedicinal data collection protocol, which will make ethnomedicinal studies more comparable.

Ritual uses of palms in traditional medicine in sub-Saharan Africa: a review

Palms (Arecaceae) are prominent elements in African traditional medicines. It is, however, a challenge to find detailed information on the ritual use of palms, which are an inextricable part of African medicinal and spiritual systems. This work reviews ritual uses of palms within African ethnomedicine. We studied over 200 publications on uses of African palms and found information about ritual uses in 26 of them. At least 12 palm species in sub-Saharan Africa are involved in various ritual practices: Borassus aethiopum, Cocos nucifera, Dypsis canaliculata, D. fibrosa, D. pinnatifrons, Elaeis guineensis, Hyphaene coriacea, H. petersiana, Phoenix reclinata, Raphia farinifera, R. hookeri, and R. vinifera. In some rituals, palms play a central role as sacred objects, for example the seeds accompany oracles and palm leaves are used in offerings. In other cases, palms are added as a support to other powerful ingredients, for example palm oil used as a medium to blend and make coherent the healing mixture. A better understanding of the cultural context of medicinal use of palms is needed in order to obtain a more accurate and complete insight into palm-based traditional medicines.

Ethnomedicine of menstruation in rural Dominica, West Indies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Dominica, women offer dysmenorrhea, delayed menses, and menorrhagia as prevalent menstrual troubles. Dominican humoral theory considers menstruation to be "hot" such that menstrual problems are caused by the introduction of too much "cold" in the body. These conditions can be painful and may require herbal medicine. Our method finds the most culturally salient plants for these conditions-those which are of common knowledge across the population. We hypothesize that cultural agreement on ethnobotanical treatments (1) reflects their perceived ethnophysiological efficacy, and that (2) salient plants contain bioactive compounds appropriate for the menstrual conditions for which Dominicans employ the plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Qualitative data on local explanatory models and treatment of menstrual conditions were collected using participant-observation, focus groups, and informal key informant interviews. Quantitative ethnobotanical data come from freelist (or "free-list") tasks, conducted with 54 adults.

RESULTS

Mean salience values calculated from freelisted data reveal that the same four plants, Cinnamomum verum (synonym Cinnamomum zeylanicum) (Lauraceae), Mentha suaveolens (Lamiaceae), Pimenta racemosa (Myrtaceae) and Sphagneticola trilobata (synonym Wedelia trilobata) (Asteraceae) are used to treat dysmenorrhea and delayed menses. The only remedy reported for menorrhagia, Sphagneticola trilobata (Asteraceae), is also a treatment for dysmenorrhea and delayed menses. The Dominican humoral system views menstruation as a "hot" condition, yet these "bush medicines" are also "hot." Dominicans do not view menstruation as a problem, rather, they reckon that excess "cold" in a woman׳s menstruating body impedes menstrual function to cause problems thus requiring "hot" plants to alleviate their symptoms. A literature review revealed that all four plants contain analgesic, anti-nociceptive, and anti-inflammatory properties. Additionally, Mentha suaveolens is muscle-relaxing and anti-spasmodic, Cinnamomum verum has a mild anti-coagulant, and Sphagneticola trilobata has wound healing, anti-stress, and sedative properties.

CONCLUSIONS

In Dominican menstrual problems there is correspondence between cultural consensus, bioactivity, and humoral theory. Examining the ethnophysiology of menstruation and its complications provides evidence for the expectations of actions and effectiveness of locally culturally salient medicinal plants.

Nepalese traditional medicine and symptoms related to Parkinson's disease and other disorders: Patterns of the usage of plant resources along the Himalayan altitudinal range

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Nepal is a hotspot for cultural and biological diversities. The tremendous diversity of ecosystems and climates and the blend of medicinal practices inherited from Ayurvedic and Traditional Tibetan Medicine are well suited to a study aimed at discovering information about medicinal plants to treat Parkinson's disease (PD). In addition, this study across Nepal's altitudinal range is relevant to understanding how cultural and ecological environments influence local traditional medicines. The aim of the study is to document the uses of medicinal plants in three different eco-geographical areas of Nepal (Chitwan-Panchase-Mustang) to treat symptoms related to PD. A second goal is to analyze the impact of culture and environment on the evolution of traditional medicine.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted in five communities located in three different eco-geographical environments and at altitudes ranging from 300m to 3700m. We interviewed a total of 56 participants (local people, folk, Ayurvedic and Amchi healers) across the three research areas. We conducted open-ended interviews to document the uses of medicinal plants to treat PD-related symptoms. Information provided by the interviewees suggested that the medicinal plants are also used to treat symptoms related to other disorders. We determined the informant consensus factor as well as the importance of specific plant species to (i) identify plants that are the best candidates to be analyzed experimentally for their potential to treat PD and (ii) perform a cross-cultural comparison of the three areas of study.

RESULTS

This study reports the local uses of 35 different plant species along the Chitwan-Panchase-Mustang altitudinal range. We identify a total of eight plant species that were used in all three research areas, and more specifically one species used to treat PD-like symptoms. We identify a potential dual protective activity of medicinal plants used to treat PD-related symptoms as recent literature suggests that these plants also have anti-cancer properties. In addition, we document that the presence of Ayurvedic healers could influence local practices and that local practices could influence local Ayurvedic practices.

CONCLUSIONS

This study documents the uses of medicinal plants to treat symptoms related to PD and other disorders across the Chitwan-Panchase-Mustang altitudinal range. PD is a neurodegenerative disease affecting a growing number of people worldwide. No cures are available to slow the death of the neurons, and there is a critical need to work towards innovative therapeutic strategies. We identify medicinal plants based on traditional practices to help develop a cure for PD. The three areas of study were chosen for their ecological and cultural diversities, and two of these are included in conservation programs (Panchase Protected Forest and Annapurna Conservation Area). The documentation of community-natural resource relationships is another step in the preservation of traditional practices and local biodiversity and a reflection of communities' rights in the design of conservation programs.

Traditional knowledge on medicinal plant of the Karen in northern Thailand: a comparative study

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

We studied traditional medicinal plant knowledge among the Karen in northern Thailand.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To compare traditional medicinal knowledge in 14 Karen villages in northern Thailand and determine culturally important medicinal plant species in each Karen village.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We interviewed 14 key informants and 438 non-specialist informants about their traditional knowledge of medicinal plants. We tested normality of the data and correlations with distance to the nearest city using Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests and Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. Cluster analysis and cultural importance index (CI) were calculated for the similarity of medicinal plant used and culturally importance medicinal plant species among Karen villages respectively.

RESULTS

In total 379 medicinal plant species were used. Number of medicinal plants used positively correlate with distance to the nearest city. Relatively low similarities of medicinal plant species and different CI values for species among the different areas were found.

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional medicinal plants still play an important role in medicinal practice of the Karen. Local environments, availability of medicinal plant and distance between Karen villages and the nearest city affect the amount of traditional medicinal knowledge in each Karen village. The medicinal plants in this study with high CI values might give some useful leads for further biomedical research.

Comparing medicinal plant knowledge using similarity indices: a case of the Brou, Saek and Kry in Lao PDR

BACKGROUND

Medicinal plant traditional knowledge is one of the most widely known traditional ecosystem services, as it provides primary healthcare, contributes to subsistence livelihoods, and for its potential value as a source of novel pharmaceuticals. People living in close contact with their surroundings for many generations are hypothesized to have developed, through trial-and-error, in-depth knowledge of ecosystems, biodiversity, and their management and utility. In the case of medicinal plant knowledge it could lead to an asymptotic climax or a constantly evolving equilibrium of cures with proven efficacy and those under assessment.

METHODS

An in-depth study of 97 plant species used in traditional medicine by the Brou, Saek and Kry ethnic groups in Lao PDR was made to test similarity in medicinal plant knowledge.

RESULTS

Medicinal plants were used in 99 different ways in 510 species-use combinations. Medicinal uses could be generalized into 12 use categories with 747 species-category combinations. Similarity indices show Brou and Saek plant use appears to be most similar (QS(BS): 60.0; JI(BS): 75.1) followed by Kry and Saek (QS(KS): 51.6; JI(KS): 53.4), and then Kry and Brou (QS(BK): 46.9; JI(BK): 44.1).

DISCUSSION

Intercultural similarities found are quite low, considering that all three groups share the same geographical and ecological area and have the same dependence on medicinal plants. Intercultural transmission is unimpeded but many treatments are likely to be ineffective. Comparison of the similarities found here with similarities computed from other data show that these results are homologous with other sympatric ethnic groups, and much higher than those for allopatrically living groups.

CONCLUSION

Medicinal plant knowledge does not reach a stable climax, but appears to evolve continually by trial-and-error, as effective cures to many ailments are unavailable.

Documentation and quantitative analysis of the local knowledge on medicinal plants among traditional Siddha healers in Virudhunagar district of Tamil Nadu, India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

India has a population with high degree of medical pluralism. Siddha system of Indian traditional medicine is practiced dominantly by the people in Tamil Nadu. The traditionally trained Siddha healers still play an important role in the rural health care. Their knowledge is comparatively more vulnerable than the documented traditional knowledge. Thus, the present study was aimed to document and quantitatively analyze the local knowledge of the traditional Siddha healers in Virudhunagar district of Tamil Nadu, India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The results presented in this paper are the outcome of series of interviews conducted between January and August, 2010 consisting of 196 field days. After getting prior informed consent, interviews were conducted and successive free-listing was used in the interviews in order to make informants cite the medicinal plants that they have used. By this way 96 healers were interviewed and their data were quantitatively analyzed using various indices such as Informant Consensus Factor (F(ic)), Fidelity Level (FL), Informant Agreement on Remedies (IAR) and Cultural Importance Index (CII).

RESULTS

This study recorded the ethno-medicinal usage of 227 species which were used to prepare 611 formulations for the treatment of 36 illness categories. The knowledge holders had the experience of minimum 20 years. There was unevenness in male-female ratio. Regarding the medicinal plants, easily available plants were holding significantly high number of citations, IAR and CII values. Nine illness categories had a high F(ic) value, compared to others. Species with high citations in these groups were Moringa oleifera (aphrodisiacs), Acalypha indica (dermatological ailments), Dodonaea viscosa (musculo-skeletal disorders), Solanum trilobatum (pulmonary ailments), Phyllanthus amarus (jaundice), Piper nigrum (adjuvant) Allium cepa (hemorrhoids), Azadirachta indica (antiseptic) and Tribulus terrestris (urinary ailments).

CONCLUSION

Quantitative analysis of the data had revealed that the easily available species hold a high consensus and cultural importance. Future biomedical studies using the medicinal plants enumerated in this study, particularly those with high number of citations and high F(ic) values might yield some novel prototypes. Such studies will also be useful to assess the efficacy and safety of these herbal treatments to take decisions on the health care of rural India.

The use of phylogeny to interpret cross-cultural patterns in plant use and guide medicinal plant discovery: an example from Pterocarpus (Leguminosae)

BACKGROUND

The study of traditional knowledge of medicinal plants has led to discoveries that have helped combat diseases and improve healthcare. However, the development of quantitative measures that can assist our quest for new medicinal plants has not greatly advanced in recent years. Phylogenetic tools have entered many scientific fields in the last two decades to provide explanatory power, but have been overlooked in ethnomedicinal studies. Several studies show that medicinal properties are not randomly distributed in plant phylogenies, suggesting that phylogeny shapes ethnobotanical use. Nevertheless, empirical studies that explicitly combine ethnobotanical and phylogenetic information are scarce.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

In this study, we borrowed tools from community ecology phylogenetics to quantify significance of phylogenetic signal in medicinal properties in plants and identify nodes on phylogenies with high bioscreening potential. To do this, we produced an ethnomedicinal review from extensive literature research and a multi-locus phylogenetic hypothesis for the pantropical genus Pterocarpus (Leguminosae: Papilionoideae). We demonstrate that species used to treat a certain conditions, such as malaria, are significantly phylogenetically clumped and we highlight nodes in the phylogeny that are significantly overabundant in species used to treat certain conditions. These cross-cultural patterns in ethnomedicinal usage in Pterocarpus are interpreted in the light of phylogenetic relationships.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

This study provides techniques that enable the application of phylogenies in bioscreening, but also sheds light on the processes that shape cross-cultural ethnomedicinal patterns. This community phylogenetic approach demonstrates that similar ethnobotanical uses can arise in parallel in different areas where related plants are available. With a vast amount of ethnomedicinal and phylogenetic information available, we predict that this field, after further refinement of the techniques, will expand into similar research areas, such as pest management or the search for bioactive plant-based compounds.

Cross-cultural comparison of three medicinal floras and implications for bioprospecting strategies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

One of the major drawbacks of using ethnomedicinal data to direct testing of plants which may find pharmaceutical use is that certain plants without bioactivity might be traditionally used. An accepted way of highlighting bioactive plants is to compare usage in different cultures. This approach infers that presumed independent discovery by different cultures provides evidence for bioactivity. Although several studies have made cross-cultural comparisons, they focussed on closely related cultures, where common patterns might be the result of common cultural traditions. The aim of this study was to compare three independent ethnomedicinal floras for which similarities can be more robustly interpreted as independent discoveries, and therefore likely to be indication for efficacy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data from the literature were compiled about the ethnomedicinal floras for three groups of cultures (Nepal, New Zealand and the Cape of South Africa), selected to minimise historical cultural exchange. Ethnomedicinal applications were divided in 13 categories of use. Regression and binomial analyses were performed at the family level to highlight ethnomedicinal "hot" families. General and condition-specific analyses were carried out. Results from the three regions were compared.

RESULTS

Several "hot" families (Anacardiaceae, Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, Clusiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Geraniaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Rubiaceae, Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae and Solanaceae) were recovered in common in the general analyses. Several families were also found in common under different categories of use.

CONCLUSIONS

Although profound differences are found in the three ethnomedicinal floras, common patterns in ethnomedicinal usage are observed in widely disparate areas of the world with substantially different cultural traditions. As these similarities are likely to stem from independent discoveries, they strongly suggest that underlying bioactivity might be the reason for this convergent usage. The global distribution of prominent usage of families used in common obtained by this study and the wider literature is strong evidence that these families display exceptional potential for discovery of previously overlooked or new medicinal plants and should be placed in high priority in bioscreening studies and conservation schemes.

Consensus of local knowledge on medicinal plants among traditional healers in Mayiladumparai block of Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India

AIM OF THE STUDY

The role of ethnobotany in drug discovery is huge but there are criticisms over such studies due to their qualitative nature. The present study is aimed at quantitatively abstracting the medicinal plant knowledge of the healers trained in traditional ways, in Mayiladumparai block of Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The interviews and field observations were carried out in all the 18 village panchayaths from January to June 2010, consisting of 148 field days. The interviews were conducted with 80 traditional healers, after obtaining prior informed consent. Successive free listing was used to interview the informants. The informant consensus factor (F(ic)) was calculated to estimate the use variability of medicinal plants. Fidelity index and Cultural importance index were also calculated to analyze the data.

RESULTS

This study recorded the ethno-medicinal usage of 142 ethno-species belonging to 62 families that were used to prepare 504 formulations. Jaundice had the highest F(ic) value than all the illness categories studied. Phyllanthus spp. was the highly cited medicinal plant to treat jaundice and had high fidelity index value. This was followed by Senna angustifolia and Terminalia chebula as laxatives. The highly cited medicinal plants in each group with high F(ic) value were Pongamia pinnata (antiseptic), Aerva lanata (antidote and snakebite), Blepharis maderaspatensis (cuts and wounds), Abutilon indicum (hemorrhoids), Ruta graveolens (spiritual medicine), Ocimum tenuiflorum (cough), and Solanum trilobatum (pulmonary ailments). Phyllanthus spp., was the most culturally significant species according to this index, followed by Borassus flebellifer.

CONCLUSION

The process of drug discovery has become highly expensive and post-approval and post-marketing withdrawal of drugs is continuing. In such scenario, reverse pharmacology is considered an attractive option. The medicinal plants enumerated in this study with high number of citations and high F(ic) values for illness categories might give some useful leads for further biomedical research.

Ethnomedicinal practices and medicinal plant knowledge of the Yuracarés and Trinitarios from Indigenous Territory and National Park Isiboro-Sécure, Bolivian Amazon

AIM OF THE STUDY

We investigated the ethnomedical practices and knowledge of medicinal plant and fungus species of contemporary Yuracaré and Trinitario ethnic groups from Indigenous Territory and National Park Isiboro-Sécure (TIPNIS), located in the Bolivian Amazon region. Our aim was to identify the culturally most significant medicinal plant families, growth forms and species, as well as to assess the current state of knowledge regarding the bioactivity of the most important species, based on available literature data.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Medicinal plant and fungus species were inventoried during homegarden and swidden sampling, walk-in-the-woods and transect sampling. Data on medicinal uses were obtained from 12 Yuracaré and 14 Trinitario participants.

RESULTS

We commence by providing a brief overview of Yuracaré and Trinitario ethnomedical systems, highlighting the important shamanistic component of particularly Trinitario traditional medicine. The rest of the paper is dedicated to an analysis and discussion based on the 349 inventoried medicinal plant and fungus species. Contingency table and binomial analyses of medicinal plants used versus the total number of inventoried species per family showed that several plant families are significantly over (Piperaceae, Araceae, Solanaceae, Asteraceae and Siparunaceae) and underused (Chrysobalanaceae, Sapotaceae, Lauraceae, Celastraceae and Annonaceae) in traditional medicine in TIPNIS. Also herbaceous plants are significantly overrepresented in the medicinal plant inventory, which is in line with relevant literature. Our ranking of medicinal species according to cultural significance is based on the Quality Use Agreement Value (QUAV) index we developed and presented in a previous paper. Results indicate that the QUAV index's property to mainly select species that combine multiple ethnomedical uses with high informant consensus, justifies its use as a measure of cultural significance of medicinal plants in TIPNIS. Results of a literature search suggest, on the other hand, that the QUAV(s) score of a species could also be indicative of its bioactivity.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to the QUAV index's value as a tool for assessing the cultural significance of medicinal species, it might also be useful to identify species with a higher likeliness of being bioactive.

The relevance of traditional knowledge systems for ethnopharmacological research: theoretical and methodological contributions

BACKGROUND

Ethnopharmacology is at the intersection of the medical, natural, and social sciences. Despite its interdisciplinary nature, most ethnopharmacological research has been based on the combination of the chemical, biological, and pharmacological sciences. Far less attention has been given to the social sciences, including anthropology and the study of traditional knowledge systems.

METHODS

I reviewed the literature on traditional knowledge systems highlighting its potential theoretical and methodological contributions to ethnopharmacology.

RESULTS

I discuss three potential theoretical contributions of traditional knowledge systems to ethnopharmacological research. First, while many plants used in indigenous pharmacopoeias have active compounds, those compounds do not always act alone in indigenous healing systems. Research highlights the holistic nature of traditional knowledge systems and helps understand plant's efficacy in its cultural context. Second, research on traditional knowledge systems can improve our understanding of how ethnopharmacological knowledge is distributed in a society, and who benefits from it. Third, research on traditional knowledge systems can enhance the study of the social relations that enable the generation, maintenance, spread, and devolution of cultural traits and innovations, including ethnopharmacological knowledge. At a methodological level, some ethnopharmacologists have used anthropological tools to understand the context of plant use and local meanings of health and disease. I discuss two more potential methodological contributions of research on traditional knowledge systems to ethnopharmacological research. First, traditional knowledge systems research has developed methods that would help ethnopharmacologists understand how people classify illnesses and remedies, a fundamental aspect of folk medicinal plant selection criteria. Second, ethnopharmacologists could also borrow methods derived from cultural consensus theory to have a broader look at intracultural variation and at the analysis of transmission and loss of traditional ethnopharmacological knowledge.

CONCLUSIONS

Ethical considerations in the ethnopharmacology of the 21st century should go beyond the recognition of the Intellectual Property Rights or the acquisition of research permits, to include considerations on the healthcare of the original holders of ethnopharmacological knowledge. Ethnopharmacology can do more than speed up to recover the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples to make it available for the development of new drugs. Ethnopharmacologists can work with health care providers in the developing world for the local implementation of ethnopharmacological research results.

Piper umbellatum L.: a comparative cross-cultural analysis of its medicinal uses and an ethnopharmacological evaluation

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review assesses the botany, traditional medicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of P. umbellatum.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information on P. umbellatum was gathered via the internet (using Scirus, Google Scholar, CAB-Abstracts, MedlinePlus, Embase, Scielo, and Web of Science) and libraries. Additionally, previously unpublished work on the traditional uses of P. umbellatum from our National Study of the Medicinal Plants of the Dominican Republic has been included.

RESULTS

Piper umbellatum is a Neotropical plant species widely distributed in Mexico, Central America, South America and the West Indian Islands. It has also been introduced to Africa and South-East Asia. Traditional uses for this plant are recorded in 24 countries in three continents, America, Africa and Asia for a wide range of ailments such as kidney, women diseases, diarrhea, skin affections, burns, rheumatism, malaria, intestinal parasites, inflammation and fever. We have analyzed the cross-cultural agreement among traditional uses in different countries and found a high degree of consensus for the indications kidney/diuretic, stomachache and wounds. Phytochemical studies of P. umbellatum have demonstrated the presence of terpenes (mainly found in the essential oil), alkaloids, flavonoids, sterols and other classes of secondary metabolites. The extracts and pure compounds derived from P. umbellatum show a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities including antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, cytotoxic, antimalarial, antileishmanial, and antitrypanosomal activity. A first commercial product is in development, based on the plant's protective characteristics against UV irradiation.

CONCLUSIONS

The interesting biological activities of P. umbellatum need further research in in vivo experiments and clinical studies. The outcome of these investigations will determine the possible development of drugs from P. umbellatum.

Ethnopharmacological field studies: a critical assessment of their conceptual basis and methods

Ethnopharmacology as a well-defined field has a relatively short history, but for centuries researchers have been interested in the observation, description, and experimental investigation of indigenous drugs and their biological activities. Today, such articles are published in a variety of journals among which the Journal of Ethnopharmacology has a prominent position as well as in book monographs. As any other area of scientific endeavour, this field requires a critical and engaged discussion about the conceptual basis, the relevant methods and the overall standards necessary for excellence. Here we review recent ethnopharmacological field studies in order to highlight achievements and future needs for improving the quality of such studies. The basis for this review is 40 field studies published in the years 2007 and 2008 in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology. Researchers need to have a clear vision for what and how they want to achieve a conceptually and methodologically sound approach and as in all disciplines adherence to internationally recognized methodological standards is essential. Here we review not only the basic conceptual requirements but also the minimal methodological (i.e. botanical, anthropological/historical,ethnomedical) standards and ways how to quantify ethnopharmacological information. Future uses of such information both in the context of experimental research and in applied projects highlight the multiple roles of such data generated in ethnopharmacological field studies. This review cannot be a book of recipes on how to conduct such research but highlights minimal conceptual and methodological requirements for use in future projects.

Cultural significance of medicinal plant families and species among Quechua farmers in Apillapampa, Bolivia

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Medicinal plant use was investigated in Apillapampa, a community of subsistence farmers located in the semi-arid Bolivian Andes.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The main objectives were to identify the culturally most significant medicinal plant families and species in Apillapampa.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 341 medicinal plant species was inventoried during guided fieldtrips and transect sampling. Data on medicinal uses were obtained from fifteen local Quechua participants, eight of them being traditional healers.

RESULTS

Contingency table and binomial analyses of medicinal plants used versus the total number of inventoried species per family showed that Solanaceae is significantly overused in traditional medicine, whereas Poaceae is underused. Also plants with a shrubby habitat are significantly overrepresented in the medicinal plant inventory, which most likely relates to their year-round availability to people as compared to most annual plants that disappear in the dry season. Our ranking of medicinal species according to cultural importance is based upon the Quality Use Agreement Value (QUAV) index we developed. This index takes into account (1) the average number of medicinal uses reported for each plant species by participants; (2) the perceived quality of those medicinal uses; and (3) participant consensus.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the results, the QUAV index provides an easily derived and valid appraisal of a medicinal plant's cultural significance.

A new approach to study medicinal plants with tannins and flavonoids contents from the local knowledge

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present work tested the power of different methodological strategies for identifying plants that could be interesting in terms of their phenolic compounds (especially flavonoids and tannins) by comparing a new index in which priority-determining criteria are based on the free-listing technique as well as on two randomized methods for choosing plants within an ethnodirected based approach.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present study was undertaken in the rural area of the municipality of Altinho located in the central region of Pernambuco State, northeastern Brazil. The ethnobotanical survey was divided into three different stages. The first stage was a general survey of 101 individuals on the use and knowledge of medicinal plants within the community. During the second stage local specialists were selected on the basis of the quality and quantity of information they offered during the initial phase of the investigation. The third stage consisted of returning to the specialists a final time in order to apply the free-listing technique. We also assumed that a plant could demonstrate anti-inflammatory and healing effects even without the presence of the compounds of interest of this study.

RESULTS

There is a strong association between tannin content and the effects popularly attributed to wound-healing and anti-inflammatory plants. No relationships were observed between plants used by the community to treat inflammation or healing with their flavonoid contents.

CONCLUSION

Thus, identifying Caatinga medicinal plants known with anti-inflammatory activity and healing capacities is a good criterion for identifying species with high levels of tannins, although these same criteria are not useful for identifying plants with high flavonoid contents.