Cordysinocan, a polysaccharide isolated from cultured Cordyceps, activates immune responses in cultured T-lymphocytes and macrophages: signaling cascade and induction of cytokines

Bioactive compounds from Cordyceps and their therapeutic potential

The Clavicipitaceae family's largest and most diverse genus is Cordyceps. They are most abundant and diverse in humid temperate and tropical forests and have a wide distribution in: Europe, North America, and East and Southeast Asian countries, particularly: Bhutan, China, Japan, Nepal, Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, Tibet, and the Himalayan region of India, and Sikkim. It is a well-known parasitic fungus that feeds on insects and other arthropods belonging to 10 different orders. Over 200 bioactive metabolites, that include: nucleotides and nucleosides, polysaccharides, proteins, polypeptides, amino acids, sterols, and fatty acids, among others have been extracted from Cordyceps spp. demonstrating the phytochemical richness of this genus. These components have been associated with a variety of pharmacological effects, including: anti-microbial, anti-apoptotic, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities. In this paper, the bioactivity of various classes of metabolites produced by Cordyceps spp., and their therapeutic properties have been reviewed in an attempt to update the existing literature. Furthermore, one of its nucleoside and a key bioactive compound, cordycepin has been critically elaborated with regard to its biosynthesis pathway and the recently proposed protector-protégé mechanism as well as various biological and pharmacological effects, such as: suppression of purine and nucleic acid biosynthesis, induction of apoptosis, and cell cycle regulation with their mechanism of action. This review provides current knowledge on the bioactive potential of Cordyceps spp.

A critical review on intestinal mucosal barrier protection effects of dietary polysaccharides

Studies have shown that dietary polysaccharides, which are widely present in natural foods, have an important impact on the intestinal mucosal barrier. Dietary polysaccharides can maintain the intestinal barrier function through multiple mechanisms. The intestinal barrier is composed of mechanical, chemical, immune, and biological barriers, and dietary polysaccharides, as a bioactive component, can promote and regulate these four barriers. Dietary polysaccharides can enhance the expression of tight junction proteins and mucins such as occludin-1 and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) between intestinal epithelial cells, inhibit inflammatory response and oxidative stress, increase the growth of beneficial bacteria, produce beneficial metabolites such as short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and promote the proliferation and metabolism of immune cells. Given the critical role of the intestinal mucosal system in health and disease, the protective effects of dietary polysaccharides may be potentially valuable for the prevention and treatment of gut-related diseases. Therefore, it is of great significance to further study the mechanism and application prospects of the intestinal mucosal barrier derived from plant, animal, fungal and bacterial sources.

Unique Bioactives from Zombie Fungus (Cordyceps) as Promising Multitargeted Neuroprotective Agents

Cordyceps, also known as "zombie fungus", is a non-poisonous mushroom that parasitizes insects for growth and development by manipulating the host system in a way that makes the victim behave like a "zombie". These species produce promising bioactive metabolites, like adenosine, β-glucans, cordycepin, and ergosterol. Cordyceps has been used in traditional medicine due to its immense health benefits, as it boosts stamina, appetite, immunity, longevity, libido, memory, and sleep. Neuronal loss is the typical feature of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) (Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)) and neurotrauma. Both these conditions share common pathophysiological features, like oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and glutamatergic excitotoxicity. Cordyceps bioactives (adenosine, N6-(2-hydroxyethyl)-adenosine, ergosta-7, 9 (11), 22-trien-3β-ol, active peptides, and polysaccharides) exert potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic activities and display beneficial effects in the management and/or treatment of neurodegenerative disorders in vitro and in vivo. Although a considerable list of compounds is available from Cordyceps, only a few have been evaluated for their neuroprotective potential and still lack information for clinical trials. In this review, the neuroprotective mechanisms and safety profile of Cordyceps extracts/bioactives have been discussed, which might be helpful in the identification of novel potential therapeutic entities in the future.

Influence of Cordyceps militaris-fermented grain substrate extracts on alleviating food allergy in mice

Background

Cordyceps militaris is recognized as a tonic in traditional Chinese medicine, and there have been documented findings on the anti-allergic properties of its extract derived from the fruiting body. Due to the limited availability of wild C. militaris, a specialized grain substrate has been devised for the solid-state fermentation of its fruiting bodies. However, the fermented grain substrate is considered waste and usually used as feeds for animals. To achieve the sustainable development goals, C. militaris-fermented grain substrate (CFGS) was collected to prepare CFGS extracts. Further, the anti-allergic properties of these extracts were assessed with the aim of exploring novel applications.

Methods

The water extract and ethanol extract of CFGS were prepared, and their potential in alleviating allergic enteritis was assessed in mice with food allergy. Assessment of immunomodulatory effects included the measurement of serum antibodies and splenic cytokines. Additionally, influence of extracts on gut microbiota composition was examined through sequencing analysis of 16S rRNA gene from freshly collected feces of the mice.

Results

Daily administration of the water and ethanol extracts, at doses of 50 or 250 mg/kg body weight, demonstrated a notable alleviation of allergic diarrhea and enteritis. This was accompanied by a decrease in mast cell infiltration in the duodenum and a reduction in allergen-specific IgE production in the serum. Both extracts led to a significant decrease in IL-4 secretion. Conversely, there was an increase in IFN-γ, IL-10, and TGF-β secretion from splenocytes. Remarkably, allergic mice exhibited a distinct fecal microbiota profile compared to that of normal mice. Intriguingly, the administration of these extracts had varying effects on the fecal microbiota.

Conclusion

Taken together, these findings collectively indicate the potential of CFGS extracts as promising candidates for functional foods. These extracts show promise in managing allergic enteritis and modulating gut microbiota.

Preparation and evaluation of Cordyceps militaris polysaccharide- and sesame oil-loaded nanoemulsion for the treatment of candidal vaginitis in mice

BACKGROUND

Candida albicans is the most prevalent fungal pathogen, affecting over 75% of women who have experienced candidal vaginitis. Given the identification of drug-resistant C. albicans strains, there is an urgent need to develop therapeutic methods for treating vaginal Candida infection. Polysaccharide is the major bioactive component of Cordyceps militaris, known to modulate immune responses and alleviate inflammation. Sesame oil is known with anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory activities.

METHODS

C. militaris polysaccharide was prepared and formulated with sesame oil to prepare emulsion and nanoemulsion, which are ideal mucosal delivery systems for both hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds concurrently. The physical property and storage stability of these formulations were illustrated, and their effects on ameliorating vaginitis were investigated in a murine model of vaginal Candida infection.

RESULTS

C. militaris polysaccharide-containing nanoemulsion showed smaller particle size, lower polydispersity index, higher zeta-potential and better stability than emulsion. Intravaginal administration of C. militaris polysaccharide-containing nanoemulsion significantly attenuated C. militaris colonization and vaginitis. Notably, these formulations exerted distinct effects on modulating cell infiltration and splenic cytokine production. Moreover, different profile of vaginal microflora was observed among the treatment groups, revealing the potential action mechanisms of these formulations to mitigate vaginal Candida infection.

CONCLUSION

C. militaris polysaccharide- and sesame oil-containing nanoemulsion is potential to be developed as intravaginal therapeutic strategy for C. albicans-induced vaginitis.

Impact of Fermentation Conditions on Physicochemical Properties, Antioxidant Activity, and Sensory Properties of Apple-Tomato Pulp

The aim of the study was to optimize the conditions [inoculum size (4, 6, and 8%), fermentation temperature (31, 34, and 37 °C), and apple: tomato ratio (2:1, 1:1, and 1:2)] on the viable cell count and sensory evaluation in apple-tomato pulp by response surface methodology (RSM), and determine the physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, and sensory properties during fermentation. The optimal treatment parameters obtained were an inoculum size of 6.5%, a temperature of 34.5 °C, and an apple: tomato ratio of 1:1. After fermentation, the viable cell count reached 9.02 lg(CFU/mL), and the sensory evaluation score was 32.50. During the fermentation period, the pH value, total sugar, and reducing sugar decreased by 16.67%, 17.15%, and 36.05%, respectively. However, the total titratable acid (TTA), viable cell count, total phenol content (TPC), and total flavone content (TFC) increased significantly by 13.64%, 9.04%, 21.28%, and 22.22%, respectively. The antioxidant activity [2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free-radical scavenging ability, 2,2'-azino-di(2-ethyl-benzthiazoline-sulfonic acid-6) ammonium salt (ABTS) free-radical scavenging ability, and ferric-reducing antioxidant capacity power (FRAP)] also increased by 40.91%, 22.60%, and 3.65%, respectively, during fermentation. A total of 55 volatile flavour compounds were detected using HS-SPME-GC-MS among the uninoculated samples and fermented samples before and after fermentation. The results showed that fermentation increased the types and total amount of volatile components in apple-tomato pulp, and eight new alcohols and seven new esters were formed. Alcohols, esters, and acids were the main volatile components in apple-tomato pulp, accounting for 57.39%, 10.27%, and 7.40% of the total volatile substances, respectively.

Immunostimulatory Activity of Cordyceps militaris Fermented with Pediococcus pentosaceus SC11 Isolated from a Salted Small Octopus in Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunocompromised Mice and Its Inhibitory Activity against SARS-CoV 3CL Protease

In this study, we investigated the immune-enhancing and anti-viral effects of germinated Rhynchosia nulubilis (GRC) fermented with Pediococcus pentosaceus SC11 (GRC-SC11) isolated from a salted small octopus. The cordycepin, β-glucan, and total flavonoid contents increased in GRC after SC11 fermentation. GRC-SC11 inhibits 3CL protease activity in severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). GRC-SC11 significantly increased thymus and spleen indices in immunocompromised mice. The rate of splenocyte proliferation was higher in GRC-SC11-treated immunocompromised mice than that in GRC-treated immunocompromised mice in the presence or absence of concanavalin A. In addition, GRC-SC11 increased the phagocytic activity and nitric oxide production in immunocompromised mice. The mRNA expression of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interferon-alpha (IFN-α), and interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) was up-regulated in GRC-SC11 treated RAW 264.7 macrophages, compared to GRC. Our study indicates that GRC-SC11 might be a potential therapeutic agent for immunocompromised patients who are vulnerable to SARS-CoV infection.

Preparation, Characterization and Anti-Complementary Activity of Three Novel Polysaccharides from Cordyceps militaris

This investigation focuses on the three novel polysaccharides from Cordyceps militaris and then discusses their characterization and anti-complementary activity. The three polysaccharides from C. militaris (CMP-1, CMP-2 and CMP-3) were prepared using a DEAE-52 cellulose column. The HPLC, HPGPC, FT-IR and Congo red analyses were used to characterize their monosaccharides, molecular weight and stereo conformation, which demonstrated that the three polysaccharides were homogenous polysaccharides with different molecular weights and were composed of at least ten monosaccharides with different molar ratios, and all had a triple-helix conformation. The evaluation of anti-complementary activity demonstrated that the three polysaccharides significantly inhibited complement activation through the classical pathway and alternative pathway. Preliminary mechanism studies indicated that CMP-1, CMP-2 and CMP-3 acted with C2, C5, C9, factor B, factor B, and P components in the overactivation cascade of the complement system. The analysis of the Pearson correlation and network confirmed that the ribose, glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid composition were negatively correlated with the anti-complementary activity of polysaccharides. These results suggested that the three novel polysaccharides are potential candidates for anti-complementary drugs.

Metabolites and Their Bioactivities from the Genus Cordyceps

The Cordyceps genus is a group of ascomycete parasitic fungi, and all known species of this genus are endoparasites; they mainly feed on insects or arthropods and a few feed on other fungi. Fungi of this genus have evolved highly specific and complex mechanisms to escape their host's immune system and coordinate their life cycle coefficients with those of their hosts for survival and reproduction; this mechanism has led to the production of distinctive metabolites in response to the host's defenses. Herein, we review approximately 131 metabolites discovered in the genus Cordyceps (including mycelium, fruiting bodies and fungal complexes) in the past 15 years, which can be used as an important source for new drug research and development. We summarize chemical structures, bioactivity and the potential application of these natural metabolites. We have excluded some reports that originally belonged to Cordyceps, but whose taxonomic attribution is no longer the Cordyceps genus. This can and will serve as a resource for drug discovery.

Cordyceps militaris as a Bio Functional Food Source: Pharmacological Potential, Anti-Inflammatory Actions and Related Molecular Mechanisms

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is a medicinal mushroom possessing a variety of biofunctionalities. It has several biologically important components such as polysaccharides and others. The diverse pharmacological potential of C. militaris has generated interest in reviewing the current scientific literature, with a particular focus on prevention and associated molecular mechanisms in inflammatory diseases. Due to rising global demand, research on C. militaris has continued to increase in recent years. C. militaris has shown the potential for inhibiting inflammation-related events, both in in vivo and in vitro experiments. Inflammation is a multifaceted biological process that contributes to the development and severity of diseases, including cancer, colitis, and allergies. These functions make C. militaris a suitable functional food for inhibiting inflammatory responses such as the regulation of proinflammatory cytokines. Therefore, on the basis of existing information, the current study provides insights towards the understanding of anti-inflammatory activity-related mechanisms. This article presents a foundation for clinical use, and analyzes the roadmap for future studies concerning the medical use of C. militaris and its constituents in the next generation of anti-inflammatory drugs.

Optimization of fermentation conditions for fermented green jujube wine and its quality analysis during winemaking

The objective was to study the optimization of fermentation conditions for fermented green jujube wine and quality analysis. This study investigated the fermentation process conditions, the changes in physicochemical indexes, antioxidant capacity and volatile compounds measured from green jujube wine during winemaking. The optimized conditions (the initial sugar, yeast addition, fermentation time and SO₂ treatments) for green jujube wine were 24%, 0.3%, 8 d, 80 mg/L, respectively. The results showed that the variation trend of different substances in green jujube wine in different fermentation periods were different. In the process of alcohol fermentation, the green jujube wine had a high 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging ability, 2,2'-amino-di (2-ethyl-benzothiazoline sulphonic acid-6) ammonium salt (ABTS) free radical scavenging ability and reducing power. Furthermore, a total of 50 volatile compounds were identified in green jujube wine, in which the relative content of aldehydes, ketones, heterocyclic and aromatic compounds were significantly reduced after fermentation.

GAS6/Axl Signaling Modulates Blood-Brain Barrier Function Following Intravenous Thrombolysis in Acute Ischemic Stroke

Background and Purpose

Recent studies have shown that several proteins, including Axl, are related to hemorrhagic transformation (HT) following intravenous thrombolysis by affecting blood-brain barrier (BBB) function. However, the effects of these proteins on BBB function have been studied primarily in animal models. In this study, we aimed to identify serum protein markers that predict HT following intravenous thrombolysis in patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS) and verify whether these serum proteins regulate BBB function and HT in animal stroke models.

Methods

First, 118 AIS patients were enrolled in this study, including 52 HT patients and 66 non-HT patients. In Step 1, baseline serum levels of Axl, angiopoietin-like 4, C-reactive protein, ferritin, hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha, HTRA2, Lipocalin2, matrix metallopeptidase 9, platelet-derived growth factor-BB, and tumor necrosis factor alpha were measured using a quantitative cytokine chip. Next, sequence mutations and variations in genes encoding the differentially expressed proteins identified in Step 1 and subsequent function-related proteins were detected. Finally, we verified whether manipulation of differentially expressed proteins affected BBB function and HT in a hyperglycemia-induced rat stroke model.

Results

Serum Axl levels were significantly lower in the HT group than in the non-HT group; none of the other protein markers differed significantly between the two groups. Genetic testing revealed that sequence variations of GAS6 (the gene encoding the Axl ligand)-derived long non-coding RNA, GAS6-AS1, were significantly correlated with an increased risk of HT after intravenous thrombolysis. In animal studies, administration of recombinant GAS6 significantly reduced brain infarction and neurological deficits and attenuated BBB disruption and HT.

Conclusions

Lower serum Axl levels, which may result from sequence variations in GAS6-AS1, are correlated with an increased risk of HT after intravenous thrombolysis in stroke patients. Activation of the Axl signaling pathway by the GAS6 protein may serve as a therapeutic strategy to reduce HT in AIS patients.

Eucommia ulmoides Leaf Polysaccharide in Conjugation with Ovalbumin Act as Delivery System Can Improve Immune Response

In this investigation, to maximize the desired immunoenhancement effects of PsEUL and stimulate an efficient humoral and cellular immune response against an antigen, PsEUL and the model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) were coupled using the N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) reaction to yield a novel delivery system (PsEUL-OVA). The physicochemical characteristics and immune regulation effects of this new system were investigated. We found the yield of this EDC method to be 46.25%. In vitro, PsEUL-OVA (200 μg mL⁻¹) could enhance macrophage proliferation and increase their phagocytic efficiency. In vivo, PsEUL-OVA could significantly increase the levels of OVA-specific antibody (IgG, IgG1, IgG2a, and IgG2b) titers and cytokine (IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IFN-γ) levels. Additionally, it could activate T lymphocytes and facilitate the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs). These findings collectively suggested that PsEUL-OVA induced humoral and cellular immune responses by promoting the phagocytic activity of macrophages and DCs. Taken together, these results revealed that PsEUL-OVA had the potential to improve immune responses and provide a promising theoretical basis for the design of a novel delivery system.

Classification, structure and mechanism of antiviral polysaccharides derived from edible and medicinal fungus

The deficiency of chemical-synthesized antiviral drugs when applied in clinical therapy, such as drug resistance, and the lack of effective antiviral drugs to treat some newly emerging virus infections, such as COVID-19, promote the demand of novelty and safety anti-virus drug candidate from natural functional ingredient. Numerous studies have shown that some polysaccharides sourcing from edible and medicinal fungus (EMFs) exert direct or indirect anti-viral capacities. However, the internal connection of fungus type, polysaccharides structural characteristics, action mechanism was still unclear. Herein, our review focus on the two aspects, on the one hand, we discussed the type of anti-viral EMFs and the structural characteristics of polysaccharides to clarify the structure-activity relationship, on the other hand, the directly or indirectly antiviral mechanism of EMFs polysaccharides, including virus function suppression, immune-modulatory activity, anti-inflammatory activity, regulation of population balance of gut microbiota have been concluded to provide a comprehensive theory basis for better clinical utilization of EMFs polysaccharides as anti-viral agents.

Trends in the Immunomodulatory Effects of Cordyceps militaris: Total Extracts, Polysaccharides and Cordycepin

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is a fungus with a long history of widespread use in folk medicine, and its biological and medicinal functions are well studied. A crucial pharmacological effect of C. militaris is immunomodulation. In this review, we catalog the immunomodulatory effects of different extracts of C. militaris, namely total extracts, polysaccharides and cordycepin. Total extracts obtained using water or 50% ethyl alcohol and polysaccharides from C. militaris were discovered to tend to promote type 1 immunity, whereas total extracts obtained using 70-80% ethyl alcohol and cordycepin from C. militaris were more likely to promote type 2 immunity. This article is the first to classify the immunomodulatory effects of different extracts of C. militaris. In addition, we discovered a relationship between different segments or extracts and differing types of immunity. This review can provide the readers a comprehensive understanding on the immunomodulatory effects of the precious folk medicine and guidance on its use for both health people and those with an immunodeficiency.

Immunomodulatory and Antioxidant Effects of Polysaccharides from the Parasitic Fungus Cordyceps kyushuensis

The ascomycete Cordyceps genus has been used as valued traditional Chinese medicine. Cordyceps kyushuensis is a unique species of Cordyceps, which parasitizes on the larvae of Clanis bilineata Walker, and its major component cordycepin and aqueous extract are known to have many pharmacological effects. However, the physiological function of water-soluble polysaccharides has not been explored in detail. In this study, to resolve these doubts, we extracted and separated Cordyceps-derived polysaccharides and then evaluated the immunomodulatory and antioxidant activities. Four polysaccharide fractions were purified from Cordyceps-cultured stroma by DEAE-cellulose 23 and Sephadex G-150 column chromatography. Basic structural information was elucidated on the basis of physicochemical property and spectroscopic evidences. The antioxidant activities were evaluated by a 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical method and protective effect of DNA damage. The qualified immunologic activities were also determined in vivo and in vitro. The polysaccharides could stimulate the proliferation of mouse splenocytes whether concanavalin A (ConA) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) existed or not, strengthen peritoneal macrophages to devour neutral red, and increase the content of interleukin-2 (IL-2) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in serum. The research provides the corresponding evidence for Cordyceps polysaccharides as a potential candidate for functional foods and therapeutic agents.

Genome sequencing and analysis of fungus Hirsutella sinensis isolated from Ophiocordyceps sinensis

Ophiocordyceps sinensis has been used as a traditional medicine or healthy food in China for thousands of years. Hirsutella sinensis was reported as the only correct anamorph of O. sinensis. It is reported that the laboratory-grown H. sinensis mycelium has similar clinical efficacy and less associated toxicity compared to the wild O. sinensis. The research of the H. sinensis is becoming more and more important and urgent. To gain deeper insight into the biological and pharmacological mechanisms, we sequenced the genome of H. sinensis. The genome of H. sinensis (102.72 Mb) was obtained for the first time, with > 99% coverage. 10,200 protein-encoding genes were predicted based on the genome sequence. A detailed secondary metabolism analysis and structure verification of the main ingredients were performed, and the biosynthesis pathways of seven ingredients (mannitol, cordycepin, purine nucleotides, pyrimidine nucleotides, unsaturated fatty acid, cordyceps polysaccharide and sphingolipid) were predicted and drawn. Furthermore, infection process and mechanism of H. sinensis were studied and elaborated in this article. The enzymes involved in the infection mechanism were also predicted, cloned and expressed to verify the mechanism. The genes and proteins were predicted and annotated based on the genome sequence. The pathways of several active components in H. sinensis were predicted and key enzymes were confirmed. The work presented here would improve the understanding of the genetic basis of this organism, and contribute to further research, production and application of H. sinensis.

Immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects of Astragalus polysaccharide liposome in large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea)

Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) have been widely used as immunopotentiators in aquaculture, however, the best way of their administration remains to be explored. In the present study, APS liposome (APSL) was prepared by film dispersion-ultrasonic method. The optimal conditions of APSL preparation were determined by response surface methodology, with a ratio of 10:1 (w/w) for soybean lecithin to APS and 8:1 (w/w) for soybean lecithin to cholesterol, and an ultrasound time of 15 min, which produced an encapsulation efficiency of 73.88 ± 0.88% of APSL. In vivo feeding experiments in large yellow croaker showed that both APS and APSL could enhance the contents of serum total protein (TP) and albumin (ALB), activities of serum non-specific immune enzymes such as acid phosphatase (ACP), alkaline phosphatase (AKP), and lysozyme (LZM), and phagocytic activity of head kidney macrophages. Meanwhile, they both increased the activities of serum antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) and reduced the content of final lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde (MDA) in serum, thus exhibiting the antioxidant effects. In vitro experiments on primary head kidney macrophages (PKM) showed that both APS and APSL inhibited ROS production, but obviously enhanced NO production and phagocytic activity of PKM. Furthermore, expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α), IFN-γ, and iNOS in PKM were significantly up-regulated after APS and APSL treatments, but no expression change of IFN-h was observed. Taken together, our results showed that both APS and APSL could improve several immune parameters and antioxidant ability of large yellow croaker either in vivo or in vitro, and the efficacy of APSL was markedly better than APS. These findings therefore indicated that the immunomodulatory and antioxidant activities of APS could be enhanced after encapsulated with liposome, and APSL may represent a potential drug delivery system of APS for development of immunoenhancers in aquaculture.

Mesona chinensis Benth polysaccharides protect against oxidative stress and immunosuppression in cyclophosphamide-treated mice via MAPKs signal transduction pathways

In this study, the immune responses of Mesona chinensis Benth polysaccharides (MP) in vitro and in vivo were investigated. Results showed that MP presented immunomodulatory activities on macrophages and T lymphocytes in vitro. Compared with the cyclophosphamide (Cy)-induced immunosuppressive mice, the body weights, spleen indexes (3.45 to 4.91) and thymus indexes (0.78 to 1.04) of the mice treated with MP were increased, and the peripheral blood levels were recovered. MP treatment also increased superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase activities, and reduced malondialdehyde levels to enhance the total antioxidant capacity of Cy-treated mice. In addition, MP significantly elevated IL-2, NO, and IFN-γ secretions of splenic lymphocytes and spleen, while MP mainly exerts an immune effect by regulating T lymphocytes. Furthermore, MP possessed the immunomodulatory activity by up-regulating the phosphorylation levels of proteins factors (c-Jun N-terminal kinase, extracellular regulated protein kinase and p38 kinase) in mitogen activated protein kinases signaling pathways. This study suggested that MP may be explored as a natural immune stimulant for functional food and nutraceutical industries.

Pharmacodynamic material basis of traditional Chinese medicine based on biomacromolecules: a review

Biomacromolecules, the first components of bioactive substances in traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) have wide bioactivity-related efficacy but have not yet been fully appreciated compared to small molecule components. The present review brings a novel and systemic point of view to deepen the understanding of the pharmacodynamic material basis of TCM based on biomacromolecules (polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids). Biomacromolecules have been, are and will have considerable roles in the efficacy of Chinese medicine, as evidenced by the number of biological activities related to traditional clinical efficacy. The direct and indirect mechanisms of biomacromolecules are further accounted for in a variety of neurotransmitters, hormones, and immune substances to maintain immune function in both sensitive and stable equilibrium. The biological functions of biomacromolecules have been elaborated on in regard to their roles in the process of plant growth and development to the relationship between primary metabolism and secondary metabolism and to the indispensable role of polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids in the quality formation of TCM. Understanding the functional properties and mechanisms of biological macromolecules will help to demystify the drug properties and health benefits of TCM.

Prospects for Discovering the Secondary Metabolites of Cordyceps Sensu Lato by the Integrated Strategy

BACKGROUND

Some species of Cordyceps sensu lato are famous Chinese herbs with significant biological activities, often used as edible food and traditional medicine in China. Cordyceps represents the largest entomopathogenic group of fungi, including 40 genera and 1339 species in three families and incertae sedis of Hypocreales.

OBJECTIVE

Most of the Cordyceps-derivatives have been approved clinically for the treatment of various diseases such as diabetes, cancers, inflammation, cardiovascular, renal and neurological disorders and are used worldwide as supplements and herbal drugs, but there is still need for highly efficient Cordyceps-derived drugs for fatal diseases with approval of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

METHODS

Computer-aided drug design concepts could improve the discovery of putative Cordyceps- derived medicine within less time and low budget. The integration of computer-aided drug design methods with experimental validation has contributed to the successful discovery of novel drugs.

RESULTS

This review focused on modern taxonomy, active metabolites, and modern drug design techniques that could accelerate conventional drug design and discovery of Cordyceps s. l. Successful application of computer-aided drug design methods in Cordyceps research has been discussed.

CONCLUSION

It has been concluded that computer-aided drug design techniques could influence the multiple target-focused drug design, because each metabolite of Cordyceps has shown significant activities for the various diseases with very few or no side effects.

The development of low-calorie sugar and functional jujube food using biological transformation and fermentation coupling technology

Jujube juice has been used as ingredient in a range of foods and dietary supplements. In this study, an enzyme transformation and fermentation coupling technology was applied to increase the nutritional value of concentrated/extracted Jinsi jujube juice. Two enzymes, D-glucose isomerase (GI) and D-allulose 3-epimerase (DAE), were employed to convert the glucose and fructose to a low-calorie sweeter D-allulose with a concentration of 110 g/L in jujube juice. Furthermore, the mixed cultures of Pediococcus pentosaceus PC-5 and Lactobacillus plantarum M were employed to increase the content of nutrition components related to bioactivities and flavor volatiles in jujube juice. Accordingly, this fermentation accumulated 100 mg/L gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which has neurotransmission, hypotension, diuretic, and tranquilizer effects, and increased the content of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) and many free amino acids (Asp, Glu, Gly, and Ala) at different level. The fermentation not only maintained the concentration of native functional components such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and minerals, but also increased the content of iron (Fe2+) and zinc (Zn2+), which have blood and eyesight tonic function. The value-added jujube juice might serve as a low-calorie and probiotic functional beverage and show high application potential in food industry.

Immunomodulatory effects of a mycelium extract of Cordyceps (Paecilomyces hepiali; CBG-CS-2): a randomized and double-blind clinical trial

Background

Cordyceps is a traditional Chinese herb that produces various biopharmaceutical effects, including immune-enhancing effects. In this study, we prepared a Cordyceps mycelium culture extract (Paecilomyces hepiali, CBG-CS-2) to confirm its efficacy in enhancing the immune system and to evaluate its safety in healthy adults.

Methods

Healthy adults were divided into the intervention group (n = 39), who were given 1.68 g/day of CBG-CS-2 in capsules, and the control group (n = 40) for 8 weeks. The activities of natural killer (NK) cells and serum levels of monocyte-derived mediators were assessed initially for a baseline measurement and after 8 wks.

Results

The CBG-CS-2 group showed a significant 38.8 ± 17.6% enhancement from the baseline of NK cell cytotoxic activity relative to the placebo group after the administration of the capsules for 8 wks. (P < 0.019).

Conclusion

The results suggest that the immune system functions well with CBG-CS-2 supplementation, perhaps with less accompanying inflammation. Thus, CBG-CS-2 is safe and effective for enhancing cell-mediated immunity in healthy adults.

Trial registration

This study was registered at Clinical Trials.gov (NCT 02814617).

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12906-019-2483-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cordyceps militaris polysaccharides exerted protective effects on diabetic nephropathy in mice via regulation of autophagy

The present study is designed to investigate the protective effects of Cordyceps militaris polysaccharides (CMP) on STZ-treated DN mice.

Effects of Cordyceps militaris spent mushroom substrate on mucosal and serum immune parameters, disease resistance and growth performance of Nile tilapia, (Oreochromis niloticus)

The aim of present study was determination effects of dietary administration of C. militaris spent mushroom substrate (SMS) on mucosal and serum immune parameters, disease resistance, and growth performance of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Two hundred twenty five fish of similar weight (37.28 ± 0.10 g) were assigned to the following diets [0 (T1- Control), 5 (T2), 10 (T3), 20 (T4) and 40 g kg^-1 (T5) SMS]. After 60 days of feeding trial, growth performance, skin mucus lysozyme and peroxidase activities as well as serum innate immune were measured. In addition, survival rate and innate immune responses were calculated after challenge test (15 days) against Streptococcus agalactiae. The results revealed that regardless of inclusion levels, feeding Nile tilapia with SMS supplemented diets significantly increased skin mucus lysozyme and peroxidase activities as well as serum immune parameters (SL, ACH50, PI, RB, and RB) compared control group (P < 0.05). The highest increment of immune parameters was observed in fish fed 10 g kg^-1 SMS which was significantly higher than other treatments (P < 0.05). Also, the relative percent survival (RSP) in T2, T3, T4, and T5 was 61.11%, 88.89%, 66.67, and 55.56%, respectively. Among the supplemented groups, fish fed 10 g kg^-1 SMS showed significant higher RPS and resistance to S. agalactiae than other groups (P < 0.05). Regarding the growth performance, SGR, WG, FW, and FCR were remarkably improved (P < 0.05) in SMS groups; the highest improvement observed in 10 g kg^-1 SMS treatment. According to these finding, administration of 10 g kg^-1 SMS is suggested in tilapia to improve growth performance and health status.

Polysaccharide of Danggui Buxue Tang, an Ancient Chinese Herbal Decoction, Induces Expression of Pro-inflammatory Cytokines Possibly Via Activation of NFκB Signaling in Cultured RAW 264.7 Cells

Danggui Buxue Tang (DBT) is an ancient Chinese herbal decoction containing two herbs, Astragali Radix (AR) and Angelicae Sinensis Radix (ASR): this herbal decoction serves as dietary supplement for women during menopause. DBT has been known to modulate immune responses, and its polysaccharide is proposed to be one of the active components. However, the polysaccharide-induced signaling in immune activation is not revealed. Here, we are identifying that the immune activation, triggered by DBT, could be mediated by polysaccharide. In cultured macrophages (RAW 264.7 cells), the application of polysaccharide-enriched extract of DBT significantly increased the expressions of mRNA and protein levels of interleukin-1β, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor. The induction was much stronger than the polysaccharide extract generated singly from AR, or from ASR, or from their simple mixture. The induced cytokine release in cultured macrophage was revealed to be triggered by activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling, including (i) degradation of IkBα; (ii) translocation of NF-κB p65 from cytosol to nuclei; and (iii) activation of NF-κB transcriptional elements. These results verified the possible role of DBT polysaccharide in modulating immune responses. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Mechanisms of Pharmacological Activities of Ophiocordyceps sinensis Fungi

The entomopathogenic fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, formerly known as Cordyceps sinensis, has long been used as a traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of many illnesses. In recent years its usage has increased dramatically because of the improvement of people's living standard and the emphasis on health. Such demands have resulted in over-harvesting of this fungus in the wild. Fortunately, scientists have demonstrated that artificially cultured and fermented mycelial products of O. sinensis have similar pharmacological activities to wild O. sinensis. The availability of laboratory cultures will likely to further expand its usage for the treatment of various illnesses. In this review, we summarize recent results on the pharmacological activities of the components of O. sinensis and their putative mechanisms of actions. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Post-ischemic treatment of WIB801C, standardized Cordyceps extract, reduces cerebral ischemic injury via inhibition of inflammatory cell migration

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Anti-inflammatory therapy has been intensively investigated as a potential strategy for treatment of cerebral stroke. However, despite many positive outcomes reported in animal studies, anti-inflammatory treatments have not proven successful in humans as yet. Although immunomodulatory activity and safety of Cordyceps species (Chinese caterpillar fungi) have been proven in clinical trials and traditional Asian prescriptions for inflammatory diseases, its anti-ischemic effect remains elusive.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In the present study, therefore, we investigated the potential therapeutic efficacy of WIB801C, the standardized extract of Cordyceps militaris, for treatment of cerebral ischemic stroke.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The anti-chemotactic activity of WIB801C was assayed in cultured rat microglia/macrophages. Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to ischemic stroke via either transient (1.5-h tMCAO and subsequent 24-h reperfusion) or permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO for 24-h without reperfusion). WIB801C was orally administered twice at 3- and 8-h (50mg/kg each) after the onset of MCAO. Infarct volume, edema, blood brain barrier and white matter damages, neurological deficits, and long-term survival rates were investigated. The infiltration of inflammatory cells into ischemic lesions was assayed by immunostaining.

RESULTS

WIB801C significantly decreased migration of cultured microglia/macrophages. This anti-chemotactic activity of WIB-801C was not mediated via adenosine A3 receptors, although cordycepin, the major ingredient of WIB801C, is known as an adenosine receptor agonist. Post-ischemic treatment with WIB801C significantly reduced the infiltration of ED-1-and MPO-positive inflammatory cells into ischemic lesions in tMCAO rats. WIB801C-treated rats exhibited significantly decreased infarct volume and cerebral edema, less white matter and blood-brain barrier damages, and improved neurological deficits. WIB801C also improved survival rates over 34 days after ischemia onset. A significant reduction in infarct volume and neurobehavioral deficits by WIB801C was also observed in rats subjected to pMCAO.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, post-ischemic treatment of WIB801C reduced infiltration of inflammatory cells into ischemic lesions via inhibition of chemotaxis, which confers long-lasting histological and neurological protection in ischemic brain. WIB801C may be a promising anti-ischemic drug candidate with clinically relevant therapeutic time window and safety.

The Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Actions of Cordyceps sinensis

Cordyceps sinensis, also called DongChongXiaCao (winter worm, summer grass) in Chinese, is becoming increasingly popular and important in the public and scientific communities. This study summarizes the chemical constituents and their corresponding pharmacological actions of Cordyceps sinensis. Many bioactive components of Cordyceps sinensis have been extracted including nucleoside, polysaccharide, sterol, protein, amino acid, and polypeptide. In addition, these constituents' corresponding pharmacological actions were also shown in the study such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumour, antiapoptosis, and immunomodulatory actions. Therefore can use different effects of C. sinensis against different diseases and provide reference for the study of Cordyceps sinensis in the future.

Transcriptome sequencing and analysis of the entomopathogenic fungus Hirsutella sinensis isolated from Ophiocordyceps sinensis

BACKGROUND

Ophiocordyceps sinensis, a worm and fungus combined mixture which Hirsutella sinensis is parasitic on the caterpillar body, has been used as a traditional medicine or healthy food in China for thousands of years. H. sinensis is reported as the only correct anamorph of O. sinensis and its main active ingredients are similar to the natural O. sinensis.

RESULTS

H. sinensis L0106, asexual strain of O. sinensis, was isolated and identified in this study. Three transcriptomes of H. sinensis at different cultivation periods (growth period 3d, pre-stable period 6d and stable period 9d) were sequenced for the first time by RNA-Seq method, and 25,511 unigenes (3d), 25,214 unigenes (6d) and 16,245 unigenes (9d) were assembled and obtained, respectively. These unigenes of the three samples were further assembled into 20,822 unigenes (All), and 62.3 percent of unigenes (All) could be annotated based on protein databases. Subsequently, the genes and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of the active ingredients according to the sequencing and annotation results were predicted. Based on the predictions, we further investigated the interaction of different pathway networks and the corresponding enzymes. Furthermore, the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of H. sinensis grown during different developmental stages (3d-VS-6d, 3d-VS-9d and 6d-VS-9d) were globally detected and analyzed based on the data from RNA-Seq, and 764 DEGs between 3d and 6d, 1,869 DEGs between 3d and 9d, and 770 DEGs between 6d and 9d were found, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

This work presented here would aid in understanding and carrying out future studies on the genetic basis of H. sinensis and contribute to the further artificial production and application of this organism. This study provided a substantial contribution and basis to further characterize the gene expression profiles of H. sinensis in the metabolic pathways of active ingredients.

Functional polysaccharides from medicinal mushroom Cordyceps sinensis as a potent food supplement: extraction, characterization and therapeutic potentials – a systematic review

As a rich source of novel polysaccharides, Cordyceps sinensis (CS), one of the valued traditional Chinese medicinal fungi, is a major focus of many natural products research efforts.

Hypoglycemic Activity through a Novel Combination of Fruiting Body and Mycelia of Cordyceps militaris in High-Fat Diet-Induced Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Mice

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is currently ranked among leading causes of death worldwide in which type 2 DM is reaching an epidemic proportion. Hypoglycemic medications for type 2 DM have either proven inadequate or posed adverse effects; therefore, the Chinese herbal products are under investigation as an alternative treatment. In this study, a novel combination of fruiting body and mycelia powder of herbal Cordyceps militaris number 1 (CmNo1) was administered to evaluate their potential hypoglycemic effects in high-fat diet- (HFD-) induced type 2 DM in C57BL/6J mice. Body weight, fasting blood glucose (FBG), oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), and blood biochemistry indexes were measured. Results indicated that CmNo1 lowered the blood glucose level by increasing insulin sensitivity, while no change in body weight was observed. Increased protein expression of IRS-1, pIRS-1, AKT, pAKT, and GLUT-4 in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue was found indicating restoration of insulin signaling. Additionally, PPAR-γ expression in adipose tissue restored the triglyceride and cholesterol levels. Finally, our results suggest that CmNo1 possesses strong hypoglycemic, anticholesterolemic, and antihypertriglyceridemic actions and is more economical alternate for DM treatment.

Recent advances in Cordyceps sinensis polysaccharides: Mycelial fermentation, isolation, structure, and bioactivities: A review

Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) sinensis, the Chinese caterpillar fungus, is a unique and precious medicinal fungus in traditional Chinese medicine which has been used as a prestigious tonic and therapeutic herb in China for centuries. Polysaccharides are bioactive constituents of C. sinensis, exhibiting several activities such as immunomodulation, antitumour, antioxidant and hypoglycaemic. As natural C. sinensis fruiting body-caterpillar complexes are very rare and expensive, the polysaccharides documented over the last 15-20 years from this fungal species were mostly extracted from cultivated fungal mycelia (intracellular polysaccharides) or from mycelial fermentation broth (exopolysaccharides). Extraction and purification of the polysaccharides is a tedious process involving numerous steps of liquid and solid phase separations. Nevertheless, a large number of polysaccharide structures have been purified and elucidated. However, relationships between the structures and activities of these polysaccharides are not well established. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the most recent developments in various aspects (i.e., production, extraction, structure, and bioactivity) of the intracellular and exopolysaccharides from mycelial fermentation of C. sinensis fungi. The contents and data will serve as useful references for further investigation, production and application of these polysaccharides in functional foods and therapeutic agents.