Anti-angiogenic effects of the fruit of Alpinia oxyphylla

Therapeutic benefits of natural oils along with permeation enhancing activity

The skin is the largest organ of the integumentary system with a multifunctional purpose to protect the body from heat and microbes, regulate body temperature, and act as a sensory organ. A topical dosage form applied on the skin will have to cross the stratum corneum, which would then allow the dosage form to traverse the subsequent layers of the skin. The drug with poor solubility and short half-life would serve as an ideal candidate for its delivery via the transdermal route. This review reports the role of natural oils in enhancing the permeation of drugs through skin as they possess different features like natural origin, favorable penetration enhancement, and partitioning action in the skin. Chemical penetration enhancers have been used widely but are associated with toxicities. Thus, more research should be channelized in the area of extraction of oils from natural sources, along with their active constituents, which can serve as therapeutic alternatives to various disorders and diseases. Natural oils are obtained from leaves, fruits, flowers, seeds, bark, and roots, which have a therapeutic potential as well as penetration enhancing activity. The demerits of oral drug delivery include degradation of drugs in the gastrointestinal tract, addition of taste masking, and coating of tablets, which can be overcome by delivering the drug via the transdermal route. Natural oil contains lipids, flavonoids, and terpenes, which play a significant role in anti-inflammatory and penetration enhancing activity.

Structural characterization of Alpiniae oxyphyllae fructus polysaccharide 2 and its activation effects on RAW264.7 macrophages

Polysaccharides are important components of Alpiniae oxyphyllae fructus that have been shown to exhibit significant immunomodulatory activity in our previous study. However, whether and how A. oxyphyllae fructus polysaccharides (AOFP) affect macrophages has not been determined. To further study the immunomodulatory activity of AOFP, the effect of AOFP on RAW264.7 cell activation was investigated in the present work. The results showed that AOFP2 significantly increased the phagocytic activity of RAW264.7 macrophages. AOFP2 promoted the secretion of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, TGF-β, NO and iNOS and enhanced the Th2-type immune response via its activation effect on macrophages. Additionally, the structure of AOFP2 was characterized in the present study, as the structural features of polysaccharides determine their biological activities. AOFP2 was only composed of glucose, exhibiting an average molecular weight of 44.3 kDa. Furthermore, the infrared spectroscopy, methylation and nuclear magnetic resonance results indicated that AOFP2 consisted of → 4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, →4,6)-α-D-Glcp-(1 → and T-α-Glcp.

Chondroprotective effect of Alpinia oxyphylla extract in experimentally induced cartilage degradation in rabbit articular cartilage explants

Alpinia oxyphylla is a widely used medicinal herb for diarrhea, gastralgia, tumors, hypertention, and cerebrovascular disorders. Here, we evaluated the chondroprotective effect of A. oxyphylla dried fruit ethanol extract (AOE) against cartilage degradation in rabbit articular cartilage explants. Treatment of interleukin-1α (IL-1α) and plasminogen increased degraded collagen release in culture supernatants, but pretreatment of AOE (50, 100, 200 µg/ml) inhibited the collagen release in dose-dependent manner. To examine the mechanism of action of AOE on chondroprotection, the level of matrix metalloproteinases-3 (MMP-3), matrix metalloproteinases-13 (MMP-13), tissue inhibitor of metalloprotease-1 (TIMP-1), and inflammatory mediators like prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂ ) and nitric oxide (NO) was evaluated. AOE inhibited upregulation of MMP-3 and MMP-13 and downregulation of TIMP-1 and also reduced increase of PGE₂ and NO level induced by exposure of IL-1α and plasminogen. These results indicate that AOE show chondroprotective effect through inhibiting collagen degradation via regulating MMPs, TIMP-1, and inflammatory mediators. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Osteoarthritis (OA) is a one of the most common chronic disorders in elderly persons. Because the regenerative power of joint articular cartilage is very low, treatment of OA is difficult to expect complete recovery. Therefore, there is a need to develop a therapeutic agent that can safely and effectively inhibit the cartilage destruction. For the first time, we exhibited the inhibitory effect of AOE on collagen degradation through regulating MMPs and TIMP-1 in articular cartilage explants. These findings support AOE could be used as herbal therapeutic application for protecting articular cartilage to prevent OA.

Integrated UPLC-MS/MS and UHPLC-Q-orbitrap HRMS Analysis to Reveal Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism of Five Terpenoids from Alpiniae oxyphyllae Fructus in Rats

BACKGROUND

Alpiniae oxyphyllae Fructus (AOF), a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), is widely used in the treatment of urinary, gastrointestinal and neurologic diseases in China. Although terpenoids are the main active ingredients of AOF, there are few researches on their pharmacokinetics and metabolism.

METHODS

In this study, a sensitive, rapid, accurate and novel ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method was established to evaluate the pharmacokinetic behavior of five terpenoids (oxyphyllenodiol B, (4S*,5E,10R*)-7-oxo-tri-nor-eudesm-5-en-4β-ol, 7-epi-teucrenone, (+)- (4R,5S,7R)-13-hydroxynootkatone, (E)-labda-12,14-dien-15(16)-olide-17-oic acid) in rats after oral administration of AOF extracts. 27 metabolic metabolites of the five terpenoids were identified by ultra high performance liquid chromatography -Q Exactive hybrid quadrupole-orbitrap high-resolution accurate mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS) based on precise mass and fragment ions.

RESULTS

The established pharmacokinetic analysis method showed good linearity over a wide concentration range, and the lower quantitative limit (LLOQ) ranged from 0.97 to 4.25 ng/mL. Other validation parameters were within the acceptable range. In addition, 27 metabolites were identified in plasma, urine and feces samples, and the metabolic pathways of five terpenoids were mainly focused on glucoside conjugation, dehydration, desaturation and glycine conjugation.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study on the pharmacokinetics and metabolism of five terpenoids in AOF, illuminating the disposal process of terpenoids in vivo. It was expected that the results of this study would provide some references for the apprehension of the action mechanism and the further pharmacological study of five terpenoids in AOF.

Anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of Alpinia Oxyphylla Miquel extracts in animal models

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alpinia Oxyphylla Miquel is a widely used traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of abdominal pain, intestinal disorders, enuresis, and inflammatory conditions.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study we aimed to demonstrate the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of Alpinia Oxyphylla Miquel extracts with 50% ethanol (AOE) in animal models.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The anti-inflammatory and nociceptive effects of AOE were estimated in vivo using a carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model, an arachidonic acid-induced mice ear edema model, an acetic acid induced mice writhing test model, and an ex vivo sulfated glycosaminoglycan (GAG) inhibition assay. In vitro inhibition assays for cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) were performed to determine the IC₅₀ of AOE.

RESULTS

Compared with the control, AOE caused a significant inhibition of paw edema, ear thickness, and abdominal constriction in animals. Compared with untreated explants exposed to interleukin-l alpha (IL-1α), preoteoglycan degradation by IL-1α was inhibited (18.2%-82.0%) in explants treated with AOE (50-400 μg/ml). In vitro, IC₅₀ values of AOE were 299.87, 199.07, and 170.29 μg/ml for COX-1, COX-2, and 5-LOX respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate the potent anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of AOE and suggest AOE to be useful for the treatment of osteoarthritis and/or associated symptoms.

Tectochrysin increases stress resistance and extends the lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans via FOXO/DAF-16

Aging is related to the lowered overall functioning and increased risk for various age-related diseases in humans. Tectochrysin is a flavonoid compound and rich in a traditional Chinese Medicine Alpinia oxyphylla Miq., which has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-diarrhea, hepatoprotective, and neuro-protective effects. Therefore, we tested if tectochrysin had an effect on aging in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). Our results showed that tectochrysin could extend the lifespan of C. elegans by up to 21.0%, delay the age-related decline of body movement, improve high temperature-stress resistance and anti-infection capacity, and protected worms against Aβ1-42-induced toxicity. Tectochrysin could not extend the lifespan of the mutants from genes daf-2, daf-16, eat-2, aak-2, skn-1, and hsf-1. Tectochrysin could increase the expression of DAF-16 regulated genes. The extension of lifespan by tectochrysin requires FOXO/DAF-16 and HSF-1. Overall, our findings suggest that tectochrysin may have a potential effect on extending lifespan and age-related diseases.

Protective effects of organic extracts of Alpinia oxyphylla against hydrogen peroxide-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells

Alpinia oxyphylla, a traditional herb, is widely used for its neuroprotective, antioxidant and memory-improving effects. However, the neuroprotective mechanisms of action of its active ingredients are unclear. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of various organic extracts of Alpinia oxyphylla on PC12 cells exposed to hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative injury in vitro. Alpinia oxyphylla was extracted three times with 95% ethanol (representing extracts 1–3). The third 95% ethanol extract was dried and resuspended in water, and then extracted successively with petroleum ether, ethyl acetate and n-butanol (representing extracts 4–6). The cell counting kit-8 assay and microscopy were used to evaluate cell viability and observe the morphology of PC12 cells. The protective effect of the three ethanol extracts (at tested concentrations of 50, 100 and 200 µg/mL) against cytotoxicity to PC12 cells increased in a concentration-dependent manner. The ethyl acetate, petroleum ether and n-butanol extracts (each tested at 100, 150 and 200 μg/mL) had neuroprotective effects as well. The optimum effective concentration ranged from 50–200 μg/mL, and the protective effect of the ethyl acetate extract was comparatively robust. These results demonstrate that organic extracts of Alpinia oxyphylla protect PC12 cells against apoptosis induced by hydrogen peroxide. Our findings should help identify the bioactive neuroprotective components in Alpinia oxyphylla.

Tissue Distribution of Active Principles from Alpiniae Oxyphyllae Fructus Extract: An Experimental Study in Rats

Background:

Alpiniae Oxyphyllae Fructus (Yizhi in Chinese) have been widely used as an herbal medicine for the treatment of diuresis, enuresis and diarrhea in China. Many studies have deciphered some potential underlying mechanisms for its anti-diarrheal effects. However, tissue distribution of Yizhi constituents is warranted because pharmacological receptors are frequently located in tissues. Moreover, it is also interesting to know about the potential correlation between behavior in drug distribution and the observed pharmacological response. The aim of this study is to investigate tissue distribution behaviors of Yizhi constituents after oral administration of Yizhi extract to rats, focusing on 10 active principles.

Methods:

Twenty four male Sprague Dawley rats were given orally the Yizhi extract and fourteen tissue samples were collected after being killed by bleeding from the abdominal aorta under ether anesthesia at different time-points. The resulting tissues were excised and homogenized. Based on our previous reports, liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to quantify the target analytes, as well as phase II metabolites, in the various biosamples.

Results:

Almost all the targeted Yizhi active principles and some glucuronidated metabolites were qualitatively measured in rat stomach, small intestine, large intestine, as well as liver. Nootkatone, yakuchinone A and tectochrysin were observed in the rat brain. In other rat tissues, these analytes had lower exposure or could not be detected. Consistently, quantitative analysis revealed that the Yizhi active principles dominantly distributed into gastrointestinal tissues followed by liver, the overall exposure levels ranking as follows: stomach > small intestine > large intestine > liver. Tissue concentrationtime profiles of the test active principles in rat stomach, small intestine, and large intestine were bimodal with two concentration peaks occurring at 0.5 and 4h after oral administration, respectively. The exposure levels in rat kidney and bladder were quite low.

Conclusion:

The active principles of Yizhi were specially distributed into gastrointestinal tissues after oral administration of its ethanol extract to rats. The tissue distribution behaviors partly supported its anti-diarrheal effects from a pharmacokinetic opinion. This paper will be useful as the starting point for studying the pharmacological activities of this traditional herb.

Actein Inhibits the Proliferation and Adhesion of Human Breast Cancer Cells and Suppresses Migration in vivo

Background and purpose: Metastasis is an important cause of death in breast cancer patients. Anti-metastatic agents are urgently needed since standard chemotherapeutics cannot diminish the metastatic rate. Actein, a cycloartane triterpenoid, has been demonstrated to exhibit anti-angiogenic and anti-cancer activities. Its anti-metastatic activity and underlying mechanisms were evaluated in the present study.

Methods: The effects of actein on the proliferation, cell cycle phase distribution, migration, motility and adhesion were evaluated using two human breast cancer cell lines, MDA-MB-231 (estrogen receptor-negative) and MCF-7 cells (estrogen receptor-positive) in vitro. Western blots and real-time PCR were employed to examine the protein and mRNA expression of relevant signaling pathways. A human metastatic breast cancer cell xenograft model was established in transparent zebrafish embryos to examine the anti-migration effect of actein in vivo.

Results:In vitro results showed that actein treatment significantly decreased cell proliferation, migration and motility. Furthermore, actein significantly caused G1 phase cell cycle arrest and suppressed the protein expression of matrix metalloproteinases of MDA-MB-231 cells. In addition, actein inhibited breast cancer cell adhesion to collagen, also reduced the expression of integrins. Actein treatment down-regulated the protein expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), AKT and NF-κB signaling proteins. In vivo results demonstrated that actein (60 μM) significantly decreased the number of zebrafish embryos with migrated cells by 74% and reduced the number of migrated cells in embryos.

Conclusion: Actein exhibited anti-proliferative, anti-adhesion and anti-migration activities, with the underlying mechanisms involved the EGFR/AKT and NF-kappaB signalings. These findings shed light for the development of actein as novel anti-migration natural compound for advanced breast cancer.

Alpinia oxyphylla oil induces apoptosis of hepatocellular carcinoma cells via PI3K/Akt pathway in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

The anti-tumor properties of Alpinia oxyphylla Miquel (A. oxyphylla) extracts and their petroleum ether (PE) fractions have long attracted scientific attention. These extracts' anti-tumor activity and mechanisms in vivo are still unclear. This study was designed to investigate the anti-tumor activity and the underlying mechanism of PE's effect on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

The anti-tumor activity of PE was evaluated by MTT assay and xenograft study. Mechanistic studies of PE were analyzed by Hoechst 33342 staining, Annexin V-FITC/PI double-staining assay, immunohistochemical staining and western blot assay. The toxicity of the PE treatment was verified by the levels of liver and kidney function in nude mice and the H&E staining of their liver and kidney tissues.

RESULT

PE significantly inhibited the growth of HepG2, BEL-7402, SMMC-7721 and Hep3B cells in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Specifically, PE inhibited the growth of Hep3B cells by inducing apoptosis. PE treatment at the doses of 0.25, 0.5 and 1 g/kg for 21 days caused a respective 35.7 percent, 49.3 percent and 58.8 percent inhibition of the tumor volume, and a 14.8 percent, 40.2 percent and 55.6 percent decrease in the tumor weight, respectively, as compared with the vehicle group in tumor-loaded mice in vivo. PE promoted the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria to cytosol in a concentration-dependent manner. The expression levels of BAX (p <  0.01), cleaved caspase-9 (p <  0.01) and cleaved caspase-3 (p <  0.05) were increased significantly in the PE-treated group at the dose of 1 g/kg; the expression level of BAX (p <  0.05) was increased significantly in the PE-treated group at the dose of 0.5 g/kg, and the expression level of Bcl-2 (p <  0.01) was decreased significantly in the PE-treated group in a concentration-dependent manner. Apoptosis was induced by PE through up-regulating the expression of PTEN, down-regulating the expression of PI3K and inhibiting the phosphorylation of Akt. The liver and kidney function of the plasma and the morphology of the liver and kidney were normal in each group.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggested that PE exhibited anti-cancer efficacy on Hep3B cell in vitro and in vivo. The induction of apoptosis might be one mechanism that underlies PE's ability to combat cancer by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt pathway. PE has no obvious toxicity in vivo when it exerts anti-tumor effects and has the potential to develop into an alternative anti-cancer drug for HCC treatment.

1-Methoxycarbony-β-carboline from Picrasma quassioides exerts anti-angiogenic properties in HUVECs in vitro and zebrafish embryos in vivo

Angiogenesis is a crucial process in the development of inflammatory diseases, including cancer, psoriasis and rheumatoid arthritis. Recently, several alkaloids from Picrasma quassioides had been screened for angiogenic activity in the zebrafish model, and the results indicated that 1-methoxycarbony-β-carboline (MCC) could effectively inhibit blood vessel formation. In this study, we further confirmed that MCC can inhibit, in a concentration-dependent manner, the viability, migration, invasion, and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in vitro, as well as the regenerative vascular outgrowth of zebrafish caudal fin in vivo. In the zebrafish xenograft assay, MCC inhibited the growth of tumor masses and the metastatic transplanted DU145 tumor cells. The proteome profile array of the MCC-treated HUVECs showed that MCC could down-regulate several angiogenesis-related self-secreted proteins, including ANG, EGF, bFGF, GRO, IGF-1, PLG and MMP-1. In addition, the expression of two key membrane receptor proteins in angiogenesis, TIE-2 and uPAR, were also down-regulated after MCC treatment. Taken together, these results shed light on the potential therapeutic application of MCC as a potent natural angiogenesis inhibitor via multiple molecular targets.

Ethnopharmacological uses, phytochemistry, biological activities, and therapeutic applications of Alpinia oxyphylla Miquel: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL USAGES

Fructus Alpiniae oxyphyllae (A. oxyphylla) is an important medicinal plant that is used not only as an edible fruit, but also as an important traditional medicine for benefiting cognitive performance and alleviating a wide spectrum of diseases. Such as; warming kidney, securing essence and arresting polyuria, as well as warming the spleen and stopping diarrhea and saliva.

AIMS

The purpose of this review is to provide updated, comprehensive and categorized information on the traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological research of A. oxyphylla in order to explore their therapeutic potential and establish a solid foundation for directing future research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All the available information on A. oxyphylla was collected via electronic search (using Pubmed, SciFinder, Scirus, Google Scholar and Web of Science) and additionally a number of unpublished resources, (e.g. books, Ph.D. and M.Sc. dissertations, government reports).

RESULTS

Phytochemical research on A. oxyphylla has led to the isolation of components such as essential oils, terpenes, diarylheptanoids, flavones, nucleobases and nucleosides, steroids and others. Crude extracts, fractions and phytochemical constituents isolated from A. oxyphylla showed a wide spectrum of in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities like neuroprotective, anti-diarrheal, anti-diuretic, anti-neoplastic, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, viscera protective and anti-diabetic activities. Neuroprotective, anti-cancer, anti-diarrheal and anti-diuretic effects are major areas of research conducted on A. oxyphylla.

CONCLUSIONS

Modern pharmacological studies have supported many traditional uses of A. oxyphylla, including nervous system, urinary system and gastrointestinal system disease. There was convincing evidence in experimental animal models in support of its neuroprotection, secure essence, reduce urination, and anti-carcinogenic effects. However, all the reported pharmacological activities were carried out at pre-clinical level and the authors urge further investigation in clinical trials about these therapeutic fields of A. oxyphylla.

Simultaneous Determination of Chrysin and Tectochrysin from Alpinia oxyphylla Fruits by UPLC-MS/MS and Its Application to a Comparative Pharmacokinetic Study in Normal and Dementia Rats

A simple and rapid ultra-performance liquid chromatography⁻tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC⁻MS/MS) coupled with a one-step liquid-liquid extraction method has been developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of two flavonoids (chrysin, tectochrysin) from Alpinia oxyphylla fruits extract in rat plasma. Plasma samples were extracted with diethyl ether and separated on an ACQUITY UPLC BEH C₁₈ column (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) using gradient elution consisting of 0.1% formic acid in water (A) and methanol (B). The multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode with electrospray ionization in the positive ion mode was used for detection. The linear range was 0.1 ng/mL to 50 ng/mL for chrysin and tectochrysin, respectively. The accuracy (relative error, RE%) ranged from -8.8% to 7.5% and the intra-day and inter-day precision were within 15% and had a mean extraction recovery rate of 80.3% to 86.7%. The validated method was applied to a comparative pharmacokinetic study after oral administration of Alpinia oxyphylla fruit ethanol extract between normal rats and dementia rats. The area under the curve (AUC) and peak plasma concentration (C_max) of the two constituents were remarkably increased in dementia rats than in normal rats.

Astemizole Inhibits mTOR Signaling and Angiogenesis by Blocking Cholesterol Trafficking

Cholesterol plays a key role in membrane protein function and signaling in endothelial cells. Thus, disturbing cholesterol trafficking is an effective approach for inhibiting angiogenesis. We recently identified astemizole (AST), an antihistamine drug, as a cholesterol trafficking inhibitor from a phenotypic screen. In this study, we found that AST induced cholesterol accumulation in the lysosome by binding to the sterol-sensing domain of Niemann-Pick disease, type C1 (NPC1), a lysosomal surface protein responsible for cholesterol transport. Inhibition of cholesterol trafficking by AST led to the depletion of membrane cholesterol, causing SREBP1 nuclear localization. The depletion of membrane cholesterol resulted in dissociation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) from the lysosomal surface and inactivation of mTOR signaling. These effects were effectively rescued by addition of exogenous cholesterol. AST inhibited endothelial cell proliferation, migration and tube formation in a cholesterol-dependent manner. Furthermore, AST inhibited zebrafish angiogenesis in a cholesterol-dependent manner. Together, our data suggest that AST is a new class of NPC1 antagonist that inhibits cholesterol trafficking in endothelial cells and angiogenesis.

Pharmacological blockade of cholesterol trafficking by cepharanthine in endothelial cells suppresses angiogenesis and tumor growth

Cholesterol is an important modulator of membrane protein function and signaling in endothelial cells, thus making it an emerging target for anti-angiogenic agents. In this study, we employed a phenotypic screen that detects intracellular cholesterol distribution in endothelial cells (HUVEC) and identified 13 existing drugs as cholesterol trafficking inhibitors. Cepharanthine, an approved drug for anti-inflammatory and cancer management use, was amongst the candidates, which was selected for in-depth mechanistic studies to link cholesterol trafficking and angiogenesis. Cepharanthine inhibited the endolysosomal trafficking of free-cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein in HUVEC by binding to Niemann-Pick disease, type C1 (NPC1) protein and increasing the lysosomal pH. The blockade of cholesterol trafficking led to a cholesterol-dependent dissociation of mTOR from the lysosomes and inhibition of its downstream signaling. Cepharanthine inhibited angiogenesis in HUVEC and in zebrafish in a cholesterol-dependent manner. Furthermore, cepharanthine suppressed tumor growth in vivo by inhibiting angiogenesis and it enhanced the antitumor activity of the standard chemotherapy cisplatin in lung and breast cancer xenografts in mice. Altogether, these results strongly support the idea that cholesterol trafficking is a viable drug target for anti-angiogenesis and that the inhibitors identified among existing drugs, such as cepharanthine, could be potential anti-angiogenic and antitumor agents.

Inhibition of Cardiac Hypertrophy Effects in D-Galactose-Induced Senescent Hearts by Alpinate Oxyphyllae Fructus Treatment

Aging is a complex physiological phenomenon accelerated by ROS accumulation, with multisystem decline and increasing vulnerability to degenerative diseases and death. Cardiac hypertrophy is a key pathophysiological component that accompanies the aging process. Alpinate Oxyphyllae Fructus (Alpinia oxyphylla MIQ, AOF) is a traditional Chinese medicine, which provides cardioprotective activity against aging, hypertension, and cerebrovascular disorders. In this study, we found the protective effect of AOF against cardiac hypertrophy in D-galactose-induced aging rat model. The results showed that treating rats with D-galactose resulted in pathological hypertrophy as evident from the morphology change, increased left ventricular weight/whole heart weight, and expression of hypertrophy-related markers (MYH7 and BNP). Both concentric and eccentric cardiac hypertrophy signaling proteins were upregulated in aging rat model. However, these pathological changes were significantly improved in AOF treated group (AM and AH) in a dose-dependent manner. AOF negatively modulated D-galactose-induced cardiac hypertrophy signaling mechanism to attenuate ventricular hypertrophy. These enhanced cardioprotective activities following oral administration of AOF reflect the potential use of AOF for antiaging treatments.

Multi-elements determination in medical and edible Alpinia oxyphylla and Morinda officinalis and their decoctions by ICP-MS

Contents of twenty elements (Mg, K, Ca, Na, Fe, Al, Zn, Ba, Mn, Cu, Mo, Cr, Ni, As, Se, Cd, Hg, Tl, Pb and V) in two medical and edible plant species, Alpinia oxyphylla and Morinda officinalis were simultaneously determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) method after microwave digestion with HNO₃-H₂O₂ (6:1, v/v) as the digestion solvent. Certified standard reference material Poplar leaf was used to assess the accuracy of the method. The greatest contents of Mg, K, Ca, Al, Fe and Na were found in dried Alpinia oxyphylla and Morinda officinalis samples. The contents of five heavy metals including Pb, Cd, As, Hg and Cu in Alpinia oxyphylla did not exceed the limits. The contents of Pb in 76.67% samples and Cd in two batches of Morinda officinalis samples exceeded the limits set by Chinese Pharmacopeia. The contents of the selected elements in different parts (leaves, stems, roots and fruits) of Alpinia oxyphylla varied considerably. The highest concentrations of Mg, Ca, Mn and Se were found in the leaves of Alpinia oxyphylla, at the same time, while, the contents of 9 elements including Cd, Cr, Cu, As, Pb in the roots were the highest. The transfer ratios of selected elements from both species of herbs into their decoctions were reduced. Especially for the heavy metals, the transfer ratios were below 30% except As (79.73%) in Morinda officinalis. The results showed that decoction of the samples may reduce the intake of heavy metals.

Rapid extraction and determination of 25 bioactive constituents in Alpinia oxyphylla using microwave extraction with ultra high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry

A novel and rapid microwave extraction and ultra high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of 25 bioactive constituents (including two new constituents) in Fructus Alpinia oxyphylla. The optimized conditions of the microwave extraction was a microwave power of 300 W, extraction temperature of 80°C, solvent-to-solid ratio of 30 mL/g and extraction time of 8 min. Separation was achieved on a Waters ACQUITY UPLC(®) HSS C18 column (2.1 mm× 50 mm, 1.8 μm) using gradient elution with a mobile phase consisting of acetonitrile and 1 mM ammonium acetate at a flow rate of 0.2 mL/min. This is the first report of the simultaneous determination of 25 bioactive constituents in Fructus Alpinia oxyphylla by ultra high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. The method was validated with good linearity, acceptable precision and accuracy. The validated method was successfully applied to determine the contents of 25 bioactive constituents in Fructus Alpinia oxyphylla from different sources and the analysis results were classified by hierarchical cluster analysis, which indicated the effect of different cultivation regions on the contents of constituents. This study provides powerful and practical guidance in the quality control of Alpinia oxyphylla and lays the foundation for further research of Alpinia oxyphylla.

Determination of Heavy Metals in Alpinia oxyphylla Miq. Collected from Different Cultivation Regions

20 batches of Alpinia oxyphylla Miq. were collected from Yunnan, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Hainan province in China. The contents of heavy metals of As, Hg, Pb, Cd, and Cu were determined and compared. The results indicated that geographical source might be a major factor to influence the contents of heavy metals of arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and copper (Cu) in Alpinia oxyphylla Miq. Compared to the criteria of heavy metals, the contents of As, Hg, Pb, and Cd in almost all the samples were in accordance with The Green Trade Standards. The contents of Cu were higher than the criteria for heavy metals except the samples from Changxing town, Qiongzhong county, Maoyang town, Qiongzhong county, Wupo town, Tunchang county, and Nanlv town, Tunchang county, in Hainan province. The best cultivation regions of Alpinia oxyphylla Miq. were from Changxing town, Qiongzhong county, Maoyang town, Qiongzhong county, Wupo town, Tunchang county, and Nanlv town, Tunchang county, in Hainan province. This research would provide the scientific basis for quality control and standardization of Alpinia oxyphylla Miq.

In vivo SAR and STR analyses of alkaloids from Picrasma quassioides identify 1-hydroxymethyl-8-hydroxy-β-carboline as a novel natural angiogenesis inhibitor

Twenty alkaloids were obtained from the anti-angiogenic fraction of Picrasma quassioides and their SAR/STR were studies by a zebrafish model. We had identified 3 as an angiogenesis inhibitor and confirmed in vitro.

Anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic activities of Alpinia oxyphylla on HepG2 cells through ROS-mediated signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fructus Alpiniae oxyphyllae (A. oxyphylla) is a traditional herb which is widely used in East Asian for the treatment of dyspepsia, diarrhea, abdominal pain, poor memory, inflammatory conditions and cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The cytotoxic activities of ethanol extract (EE) and five extract layers including petroleum ether (PE), dichloromethane (DCLM), acetoacetate (EtOAc), n-Butanol (n-Bu) and water fractions (WF) of A. oxyphylla were tested on HepG2, SW480, MCF-7, K562 and HUVEC cell lines using MTT assay and LDH release assay. The component analysis was performed on HPLC with gradient elution. Hoechst 33342 staining, DCFH-DA fluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry analysis, western blot and migration assays were carried out to determine the anti-cancer mechanisms of PE.

RESULTS

MTT analysis showed that EE, PE and DCLM could inhibit cell proliferation on HepG2, SW480, MCF-7, K562 and HUVEC cell lines, especially PE fraction. HPLC analysis pointed out five main components which may contribute to the anti-proliferative activity of PE. Further study showed that PE increased LDH release, induced apoptosis, disrupted mitochondrial membrane potential and elevated intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in HepG2 cells, whereas the antioxidant N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) prevented PE-induced ROS generation. The results of western blot revealed that PE induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells by enhancing Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, increasing cytochrome c in cytosol and activating caspase-3/9. Meanwhile, high levels of ROS could induce DNA damage-mediated protein expression, AKT, ERK inactivation and SAPKs activation. Furthermore, PE conspicuously blocked the migration of HUVEC cells.

CONCLUSION

The present results demonstrated that PE induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells may be via a ROS-mediated signaling pathway.

Antidiarrheal effect of Alpinia oxyphylla Miq. (Zingiberaceae) in experimental mice and its possible mechanism of action

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The fructus Alpinia oxyphylla Miq. (AOM) has been used for treating diarrhea with spleen deficiency and gastralgia for thousands of years. A number of traditional Chinese medicine formulae provide AOM as an alternative herbal treatment for diarrhea, but the scientific basis for this usage has not been well defined.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, we tried to investigate the antidiarrheal activity and possible mechanisms of Fructus AOM, aiming to enrich our understanding to the scientific meanings and theoretical significance of Fructus AOM in clinical practice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The fructus of AOM collected from Hainan province in China were macerated in the 95% ethanol to obtain the crude 95% ethanol extract, followed by subjected to chromatographic separation over a Diaion HP20 column to obtain 90% and 50% ethanol eluted fractions. The activities of the crude extract and fractions on castor oil induced acute diarrhea, rhubarb induced chronic diarrhea, gastrointestinal transit (GIT) in mice, and contractions of isolated guinea-pig ileum were evaluated. Additionally, nitric oxide (NO), gastrointestinal peptides gastrin (GAS), motilin (MTL) and somatostatin (SS) levels that related to gastrointestinal motilities were detected to demonstrate the potential mechanisms. Ultimately, LC-MS/MS method was utilized to ensure the chemical consistency.

RESULTS

The 95% ethanol extract and 90% ethanol eluted fraction significantly delayed the onset time and decreased the wet faeces proportion compared with control group in the castor oil induced acute diarrhea mice. In terms of further evaluation of antidiarrheal activity, the 95% ethanol extract and 90% ethanol elution displayed significant inhibition of the intestinal propulsion at the two highest oral doses of 20 g crude drug/kg and 1g/kg. Moreover the 95% ethanol extract (10 and 20 g crude drug/kg) and 90% ethanol elution (0.5 and 1g/kg) could significantly inhibit the GIT, which was partially attributed to the increase in NO and SS levels, and the decreased MTL. In vitro spontaneous contractions of the isolated guinea pig ileum induced by carbachol, neostigmine and histamine were attenuated by both the extract and elution. Phytochemical analysis of 95% ethanol extract and its fractions identified the presence of diphenylheptanes, sesquiterpenes, and flavones as the major components.

CONCLUSIONS

Our in vivo and in vitro data could partly support and justify the traditional usage of Fructus AOM on the treatment of diarrhea in traditional medicine.

Novel PI3K/AKT targeting anti-angiogenic activities of 4-vinylphenol, a new therapeutic potential of a well-known styrene metabolite

The pneumo- and hepato-toxicity of 4-vinylphenol (4VP), a styrene metabolite, has been previously reported. Nevertheless, the present study reported the novel anti-angiogenic activities of 4VP which was firstly isolated from the aqueous extract of a Chinese medicinal herb Hedyotis diffusa. Our results showed that 4VP at non-toxic dose effectively suppressed migration, tube formation, adhesion to extracellular matrix proteins, as well as protein and mRNA expressions of metalloproteinase-2 of human endothelial cells (HUVEC and HMEC-1). Investigation of the signal transduction revealed that 4VP down-regulated PI3K/AKT and p38 MAPK. Besides, 4VP interfered with the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, the translocation and expression of NFkappaB. In zebrafish embryo model, the new blood vessel growth was significantly blocked by 4VP (6.25–12.5 μg/mL medium). The VEGF-induced blood vessel formation in Matrigel plugs in C57BL/6 mice was suppressed by 4VP (20–100 μg/mL matrigel). In addition, the blood vessel number and tumor size were reduced by intraperitoneal 4VP (0.2–2 mg/kg) in 4T1 breast tumor-bearing BALB/c mice, with doxorubicin as positive control. Together, the in vitro and in vivo anti-angiogenic activities of 4VP were demonstrated for the first time. These findings suggest that 4VP has great potential to be further developed as an anti-angiogenic agent.

Enhancement effect of essential oils from the fruits and leaves of Alpinia oxyphylla on skin permeation and deposition of indomethacin

Essential oils from plants are gaining increasing attention as potential chemical penetration enhancers.

Cytotoxic activity of Alpinia murdochii Ridl.: A mountain ginger species from Peninsular Malaysia

Background:

Alpinia murdochii (Zingiberaceae) is a wild ginger species restricted to mountain areas of Peninsular Malaysia. Due to rapid development and deforestation activities, this species is becoming rare. This is the first report of the cytotoxic activity of A. murdochii.

Objective:

The present study aimed to investigate the cytotoxic effect of leaves and rhizomes of A. murdochii against selected human cancer cell lines by using in vitro cytotoxicity assay.

Materials and Methods:

The leaves and rhizomes of A. murdochii were extracted in hexane, dichloromethane (CH₂Cl₂), and methanol (MeOH) prior to cytotoxic activity assessment against selected human cancer cell lines, namely MCF7 (hormone dependent breast carcinoma cell line), HT29 (colon carcinoma cell line), and SKOV-3 (ovarian cancer cell line) by using in vitro neutral red cytotoxicity assay.

Results:

The hexane and CH₂Cl₂ extracts of both leaves and rhizomes exhibited remarkable cytotoxic effect against SKOV-3 cells with the IC₅₀ values in the range of 5.2-16.7 μg/ml.

Conclusion:

Based on the preliminary data obtained in the present study, the leaves and rhizomes of A. murdochii may be viable therapeutic or preventive candidates for the treatment of ovarian cancer.

Molecular mechanisms of angiogenesis effect of active sub-fraction from root of Rehmannia glutinosa by zebrafish sprout angiogenesis-guided fractionation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE

The root of Rehmannia glutinosa (Rehmanniae Radix (RR)) is clinically used as a wound-healing agent in traditional Chinese medicine. Angiogenesis acts crucially in the pathogenesis of chronic wound healing. The present study investigated the angiogenesis effect and its underlying mechanism of RR through zebrafish sprout angiogenesis guided-fractionation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The in vivo angiogenesis effect was studied by analyzing the number of ectopic sprouts formed upon sub-intestinal vessel of transgenic TG(fli1:EGFP)(y1)/+(AB) zebrafish embryos by fluorescence microscopy. Quantitative real-time PCR gene expression of the zebrafish embryos was further performed using a panel of 30 angiogenesis-associated genes designed for zebrafish sprout angiogenesis. Classical in vitro angiogenesis assays using human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) was accompanied.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that among all RR sub-fractions tested, C1-1 treated-zebrafish embryos possessed the most potent angiogenesis activities (from 190 to 780 ng/ml, p<0.001) in sprout formation in the zebrafish model. Quantitative gene expression of the treated embryos demonstrated significant up-regulation in MMP-9 (p<0.05), ANGPT1 (p<0.05), EGFR (p<0.05), EPHB4 (p<0.01), and significant down-regulation in Ephrin B2 (p<0.05), Flt-1 (p<0.05) and Ets-1 (p<0.05). C1-1 treatment could also significantly (p<0.001-0.05) stimulate HMEC-1 cell migration in scratch assay. Significant increase (p<0.05) in mean tubule length was observed in the C1-1-treated HMEC-1 cells in the tubule formation assay.

CONCLUSIONS

Our zebrafish sprout angiogenesis model-guided fractionation revealed that C1-1 possessed the most potent angiogenesis effect in RR. The design of the panel with 30 tailor-made angiogenesis-associated genes exhibited in zebrafish gene expression analysis showed that C1-1 could trigger differential expression of various angiogenesis-associated genes, such as VEGFR3 and MMP9, which played key role in angiogenesis. The pro-angiogenic activity of C1-1 was further confirmed in the translated study in motogenic and tubule-inducing effect using HMEC-1.

Quantitative analysis of the major constituents in Chinese medicinal preparation SuoQuan formulae by ultra fast high performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry

Background

The SuoQuan formulae containing Fructus Alpiniae Oxyphyllae has been used to combat the urinary incontinence symptoms including frequency, urgency and nocturia for hundreds of years in China. However, the chemical information was not well characterized. The quality control marker constituent only focused on one single compound in the current Chinese Pharmacopeia. Hence it is prudent to identify and quantify the main constituents in this herbal product. This study aimed to analyze the main constituents using ultra-fast performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-MS/MS).

Results

Fourteen phytochemicals originated from five chemical classes constituents were identified by comparing the molecular mass, fragmentation pattern and retention time with those of the reference standards. A newly developed UFLC-MS/MS was validated demonstrating that the new assay was valid, reproducible and reliable. This method was successfully applied to simultaneously quantify the fourteen phytochemicals. Notably, the content of these constituents showed significant differences in three pharmaceutical preparations. The major constituent originated from each of chemical class was isolinderalactone, norisoboldine, nootkatone, yakuchinone A and apigenin-4’,7-dimethylther, respectively. The variation among these compounds was more than 1000 times. Furthermore, the significant content variation between the two different Suoquan pills was also observed.

Conclusion

The proposed method is sensitive and reliable; hence it can be used to analyze a variety of SuoQuan formulae products produced by different pharmaceutical manufacturers.

Two new antioxidant diarylheptanoids from the fruits of Alpinia oxyphylla

Two new diarylheptanoids, 1-(3',5'-dihydroxy-4'-methoxyphenyl)-7-phenyl-3-heptanone (1) and 1-(2',4'-dihydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-7-(4″-methoxyphenyl)-3-heptanone (2), along with known diarylheptanoid yakuchinone A (3), and five flavanoids, tectochrysin (4), chrysin (5), izalpinin (6), kaempferol 7, 4'-dimethyl ether (7), and kaempferide (8) were isolated from the fruits of Alpinia oxyphylla Miq. Their structures were determined by means of spectroscopic methods. Antioxidant activities of all the isolated compounds were evaluated using a 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. Compounds 1-3 and 6-8 exhibited potent antioxidant activities in the DPPH assay.

Alpinia: the gold mine of future therapeutics

Since prehistoric era, plant-derived drugs were much preferred due to their less side effects than drugs of synthetic origin. Bioassay-guided selection of active fraction of a plant extract and further isolation and characterization of the pure bioactive compounds are in practice in both academic and industrial research. Zingiberaceae, a medicinally important, ornamental, monocotyledonous family has potential members in the tribe Alpinieae, among which the genus Alpinia is studied under this current review due to its wide range of biomedical applications. The members in the genus possess many bioactive compounds against harmful microbes to deadly diseases like cancer by regulating the different signalling pathway systems. Several compounds have been discovered and found to deliver diversified biological efficacy either in vitro or in vivo against a range of diseases. The chemical profiling of the genus and investigation of crude essential oils and individual bioactive compounds towards the therapeutic importance in various disciplines have been documented in the current review.

Zebrafish: a nontraditional model of traditional medicine

With a modern rise in the use of traditional medicines has come a need for model organisms that are amenable not only to treatment with these remedies, but also to testing the large number of potential therapeutics this field presents. The high-fecundity and rapid generation time of the zebrafish makes it a natural candidate for this endeavor. Additionally, the zebrafish shares genetic, anatomic and physiologic homology to higher order vertebrates. This review surveys the present state of phytotherapy research utilizing the zebrafish model organism. The studies herein described utilize the zebrafish for investigating plant-based effectors of hypercholesterolemia, angiogenesis, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. In addition to reviewing the present state of research in this area, the philosophical intersection of modern and traditional medical paradigms is discussed and future directions for investigations at this junction are suggested.

Anti-angiogenic activity of Erxian Decoction, a traditional Chinese herbal formula, in zebrafish

Erxian Decoction (EXD), a traditional Chinese herbal formula, has been used to treat menopausal symptoms and other aging diseases for several decades. Recently, our laboratory found that EXD could inhibit the proliferation of breast cancer cells. This activity may be mediated by anti-angiogenic action. To investigate the anti-angiogenic activity of EXD, its inhibitory effect on blood vessel formation was evaluated using both wild type and transgenic zebrafish embryos with fluorescent vasculature in vivo. Both semi-quantitative and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) were carried out to evaluate the effect of EXD on the expression of several genes closely associated with angiogenesis in zebrafish. EXD was found to inhibit vessel formation in zebrafish embryos in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Furthermore, it reduced the mRNA expression of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) and the protein level of hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) in the embryos, suggesting the involvement of HIF-1 mediated VEGF-A signaling pathway in the anti-angiogenic action of EXD. The anti-angiogenic activity of EXD provides new insights to its clinical application and may in the future lead to the development of potential drugs for treating various cancers, especially in menopausal period.

Antiproliferative effect of alpinetin in BxPC-3 pancreatic cancer cells

Alpinetin is a novel plant flavonoid derived from Alpinia katsumadai Hayata, found to possess strong anticancer effects. However, the antitumor effect of alpinetin on pancreatic cancer cells and the detailed mechanism remain unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate alpinetin's beneficial effect on pancreatic cancer and the possible molecular mechanism involved. Pancreatic cancer cell lines were treated with alpinetin at various doses and for different times, and the effect of alpinetin on cell growth inhibition, apoptosis and the cell cycle was determined. The expression of Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, XIAP and Bax, the activity of caspases and the levels of cytochrome c released were measured. The results showed that alpinetin inhibited the viability of three pancreatic cancer cell lines and induced apoptosis of BxPC-3 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. This was accompanied by regulation of the expression of Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, Bax and XIAP. Furthermore, alpinetin treatment led to the release of cytochrome c and activation of caspases-3, -8 and -9 proteins. Taken together, our studies indicate that alpinetin inhibited the proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells possibly through the regulation of the Bcl-2 family and XIAP expression, release of cytochrome c and the activation of caspases. Alpinetin may serve as a potential agent for the development of pancreatic cancer cell therapies.

Zebrafish as a model for the study of human cancer

Zebrafish provide an exciting animal model system for the study of human cancers. During the last few years many zebrafish models of cancer have been generated that recapitulate human hematologic malignancies and solid tumors. Concurrent technological advances have significantly improved the genetic tractability and unique advantage of in vivo imaging in zebrafish, providing a means to dissect the molecular pathways underlying tumor initiation, progression and metastasis. Comparisons of cancer-associated gene expression profiles have demonstrated a high degree of similarity in the gene signatures of specific types of tumor cells in fish and humans, indicating that the contributing genetic pathways leading to cancer are evolutionarily conserved. Furthermore, the high fecundity, optical clarity and small embryo size of zebrafish continue to make it particularly amenable to performing whole-organism small molecule screens to identify targets for therapeutic development. This chapter reviews a wide array of these zebrafish cancer models and illustrates the advantages of the zebrafish system for exploring the molecular mechanisms governing cancer-related cellular processes.

Alpinetin suppresses proliferation of human hepatoma cells by the activation of MKK7 and elevates sensitization to cis-diammined dichloridoplatium

Alpinetin is a type of novel plant flavonoid derived from Alpinia katsumadai Hayata, found to possess strong anti-hepatoma effects. However, the detailed antitumor mechanism of Alpinetin remains unclear. Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase-7 (MKK7) can regulate cellular growth, differentiation and apoptosis. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of MKK7 in the anti-hepatoma effect mediated by Alpinetin. HepG2 cells were treated with Alpinetin at various doses and for different times, and the levels of phosphorylated MKK7 (p-MKK7) and total MKK7 were tested by RT-PCR and Western blotting. Following transient transfection with RNA interference, cell viability and cell cycle stage were determined using methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium assay and flow cytometry, in order to assess the antitumor action of Alpinetin. In addition, chemosensitization to cis-diammined dichloridoplatium (CDDP) by Alpinetin was assessed by cell counting array and the cell growth inhibitory rate was calculated. The results showed that Alpinetin suppressed HepG2 cell proliferation and arrested cells in the G0/G1 phase by up-regulating the expression levels of p-MKK7. On the contrary, inhibiting the expression of MKK7 reversed the antitumor effect of Alpinetin. Moreover, Alpinetin enhanced the sensitivity of HepG2 hepatoma cells to the chemotherapeutic agent CDDP. Taken together, our studies indicate that activation of MKK7 mediates the anti-hepatoma effect of Alpinetin. MKK7 may be a putative target for molecular therapy against hepatoma and Alpinetin could serve as a potential agent for the development of hepatoma therapy.