Ethno-veterinary uses and informants consensus factor of medicinal plants of Sariska region, Rajasthan, India

Fractionation and phytochemical composition of an ethanolic extract of Ziziphus nummularia leaves: antioxidant and anticancerous properties in human triple negative breast cancer cells

Natural products have long been utilized in traditional medicine as remedies to improve health and treat illnesses, and have had a key role in modern drug discovery. Recently, there has been a revived interest in the search for bioactives from natural sources as alternative or complementary modalities to synthetic medicines; especially for cancer treatment, which incidence and mortality rates are on the rise worldwide. Ziziphus nummularia has been widely used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases. Its traditional uses and numerous ethnopharmacological properties may be attributed to its richness in bioactive metabolites. However, its phytochemical composition or chemopreventive effects against the aggressive triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) are still poorly explored. Here, phytochemical composition of an ethanolic extract of Z. nummularia leaves (ZNE) and its chromatographically isolated fractions was identified both qualitatively by spectrophotometric assays and analytically by HPLC-PDA-MS/MS. The anti-proliferative effects of ZNE were tested in several cancer cell lines, but we focused on its anti-TNBC effects since they were not explored yet. The anti-cancerous potential of ZNE and its fractions was tested in vitro in MDA-MB-231, a TNBC cell line. Results showed that ZNE and its Fraction 6 (F6) reduced the viability of MDA-MB-231 cells. F6 decreased MDA-MB-231 viability more than crude ZNE or its other fractions. ZNE and F6 are rich in phytochemicals and HPLC-PDA-MS/MS analysis identified several metabolites that were previously reported to have anti-cancerous effects. Both ZNE and F6 showed potent antioxidant capacity in the DPPH assay, but promoted reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in MDA-MB-231 cells; an effect which was blunted by the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC). NAC also blunted ZNE- and F6-induced reduction in TNBC cell viability. We also demonstrated that ZNE and F6 induced an arrest of the cell cycle, and triggered apoptosis- and autophagy-mediated cell death. ZNE and F6 inhibited metastasis-related cellular processes by modifying cell migration, invasion, and adhesion. Taken together, our findings reveal that Z. nummularia is rich in phytochemicals that can attenuate the malignant phenotype of TNBC and may offer innovative avenues for the discovery of new drug leads for treatment of TNBC and other cancers.

Ethnoveterinary uses of forage plants for domesticated ruminants in Malakand agency, Pakistan

Plant ethnoveterinary uses are evident in various studies around the world, but the ethnoveterinary practices of forage species are not widely reported. Traditional knowledge is rapidly disappearing because of urbanization and commercial activities. The purpose of this study was to document plant species used by the local communities in Malakand Agency, Pakistan for foraging and ethnoveterinary purposes. Twenty different localities in the study area were surveyed for documentation of forage species and related traditional ethnoveterinary knowledge used for livestock. Semistructured questionnaires and field walks were used to conduct 67 interviews with local farmers and herdsmen. A total of 91 forage species from 26 families were documented, as well as their ethnoveterinary applications. Poaceae and Fabaceae were dominant families with 45% and 15% of species respectively. Among the forage species documented, 62 were highly palatable, 26 were moderately palatable and 12 were less palatable. The region's major veterinary diseases are flu, ringworms, inflammations, low milk production, constipation, bloat, mastitis, pneumonia and wounds. The 62 forage species were reported for the first time for various veterinary uses. This study revealed that local communities commonly use a diverse range of forage species in conjunction with indigenous knowledge of ethnoveterinary uses. These forage species have the potential to overcome the recent fodder shortage. Such studies will be beneficial to the commercial production of such forage species.

Morphological characterization and interspecific variation among five species of Ziziphus genus to select superiors in Iran

BACKGROUND

Several species of the genus Ziziphus are used worldwide for their medicinal and therapeutic properties. The present study aimed to investigate the phenotypic variation of five species of the Ziziphus genus, including Z. jujuba Mill. (25 accessions), Z. mauritiana Lam. (25 accessions), Z. spina-christi L. (25 accessions), Z. nummularia L. (10 accessions), and Z. xylopyrus Willd. (10 accessions) from Markazi, Sistan-va-Baluchestan, and Khuzestan provinces, Iran.

RESULTS

The investigated accessions have significant differences in terms of all the measured as revealed using analysis of variance (ANOVA, P < 0.01). The range of fruit weight was 0.43-1.29 g in Z. jujuba, 17.85-29.87 g in Z. mauritiana, 0.94-3.44 g in Z. spina-christi, 0.93-2.02 g in Z. nummularia, and 0.91-3.02 g in Z. xylopyrus. All the measured traits showed significant and positive correlations with each other. Multiple regression analysis (MRA) results showed that fruit length, stone width, stone weight, stone length, and fruit width have significant effects on fruit weight, and thus their fluctuations have a significant effect on increasing or decreasing fruit weight. The accessions were grouped into two main clusters using hierarchical cluster analysis. The first cluster (I) included all the accessions of Z. mauritiana, while the second cluster (II) contained the accessions of the rest species forming two sub-clusters.

CONCLUSION

Based on the commercial characters, accessions no. 12, 13, 17, 23, and 24 in Z. jujuba, accessions no. 3, 9, 17, 18, 20, 22, and 23 in Z. mauritiana, accessions no. 5, 6, 8, 13, 19, 22, and 24 in Z. spina-christi, accessions no. 3, 7, and 9 in Z. nummularia, and accessions no. 2, 4, 7, and 10 in Z. oxyphylla showed the highest fruit weight and thus can be suggested as superior for cultivation or use in breeding programs due to having larger fruits.

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.: A Promising Pharmaceutical Resource for Multiple Diseases

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (Cucurbitaceae) is widely distributed in the desert areas of the world. The fruit bodies of C. colocynthis are recognized for their wide range of nutraceutical potential, as well as medicinal and pharmaceutical uses. The plant has been reported for various uses, such as asthma, bronchitis, cancer, colic, common cold, cough, diabetes, dysentery, and jaundice. The fruit has been extensively studied for its biological activities, which include insecticide, antitumor, and antidiabetic effects. Numerous bioactive compounds have been reported in its fruit bodies, such as essential oils, fatty acids, glycosides, alkaloids, and flavonoids. Of these, flavonoids or caffeic acid derivatives are the constituents associated with the inhibition of fungal or bacterial growth, whereas eudesmane sesquiterpenes or sesquiterpene lactones are most active against insects, mites, and nematodes. In this review, the scientific evidence for the biological activity of C. colocynthis against insecticide, cytotoxic, and antidiabetic effects is summarized.

Comparative morpho-anatomical study on Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Apocynaceae) growing in the hyper-arid and arid habitats of Saudi Arabia

The use of wild plants is considered to be an eco-friendly and promising natural resource. In sandy desert habitats, Leptadenia pyrotechnica flourishes as a xerophytic shrub with high biomass production. As a dominant shrub in the arid sand dune habitats of Saudi Arabia, Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssk.) Decne (Asclepiadaceae) is one of the most common xerophytes; the many medicinal uses of this plant include treating allergies, productive coughs, abortions, diabetes, stomach disorders, fevers, kidney disorders, and stones. In such a distribution, morpho-anatomical characteristics, among other adaptive traits, play an important role. This study aims to characterize some morpho-anatomical adaptations of L. pyrotechnica in two stressful habitats: the hyper-arid inland sand dunes of the Empty Quarter (EQ) and the arid coastal sand dunes of Jazan. A morpho-anatomical analysis of plant stems and roots from both habitats was conducted using light microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The outcomes indicated similar characteristics, a low surface-to-volume ratio (S/V), a thin boundary layer (δ^bl), an epidermis with many layers of hypodermis, bundles of sclerenchymatous cells around vascular tissue, and storage starch grains in ray parenchyma between xylem conduits. On the other hand, the L. pyrotechnica stem from the hyper-arid habitat of the Empty Quarter revealed more encrypted stomata, more elongated palisade cells, less calcium oxalate crystals with low Ca percentage, and a high vulnerability index of xylem vessels compared with the same traits of the stem from the Jazan coastal sand dunes habitat. Roots of L. pyrotechnica from both habitats revealed similar features of general anatomy. However, differences in specific anatomical traits were observed, especially in xylem vessel characters. The vulnerability index of root xylem vessels from the Empty Quarter habitat was more than that from the Jazan coastal sand dunes habitat. Furthermore, vestured bordered pits in root xylem walls were more abundant in the Empty Quarter habitat than in the Jazan coastal sand dunes habitat. As a result, these characteristics in the morpho-anatomy of L. pyrotechnica from both habitats provide practical adaptations to highly stressful conditions, along with specific anatomical traits relating to each habitat.

Cucumis callosus (Rottl.) Cogn. fruit extract ameliorates calcium oxalate urolithiasis in ethylene glycol induced hyperoxaluric Rat model

Cucumis callosus dry fruits are traditionally used as folk remedy to treat conditions like urethral irritations, urine stoppage or dribbling and other urinary ailments of man in north-west India. But no study is reported to validate this ethnic practice of using Cucumis fruit in urolithiasis. To evaluate anti-urolithiatic potential of Cucumis, hyperoxaluria was induced in rats by supplying 0.75% ethylene glycol (EG) + 1% ammonium chloride (AC) in drinking water for 14 days. Anti-urolithiatic activity of Cucumis callosus hydro-ethanolic extract (CCHEE) was assessed by measuring blood and urine biochemical parameters, oxidative stress indices, histopathology and osteopontin (OPN) expression. Administration of EG-AC to rats caused hyperoxaluria, crystalluria, azotaemia, oxidant/antioxidant imbalance (increase in lipid peroxidation (LPO), and decrease in glutathione (GSH) and catalase (CAT)), up-regulation of OPN and calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystal deposition in kidney. Treatment of afflicted rats with Cucumis fruits extract restored renal function to a great extent (CCHEE group), testified by improvement of stated parameters. Findings demonstrate curative efficacy of Cucumis fruit extract in EG induced urolithiasis of rats. The restoration of renal function was possibly by regulating renal stone formation via reducing urinary oxalate excretion, correcting oxidant/antioxidant imbalances, and reduced expression of OPN. Hence, results of this study validate the ethnic practice of using Cucumis fruit and conclude that fruit extracts have beneficial effects on CaOx urolithiasis and renal function.

Medicinal plants used by rural communities in the arid zone of Viesca and Parras Coahuila in northeast Mexico

This study is the first record of medicinal plants in the southwest of the Coahuila state, an arid zone where extreme dry conditions prevail. One hundred twenty-two residents (in sixteen communities) were interviewed. The residents were questioned with a questionnaire-guided ethnomedical survey protocol about the various plants used. Seventy-seven species of medicinal plants belonging to 36 botanical families were cited. The highest use-value (UV) was calculated for Lippia graveolens Kunth (0.30); Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (0.20); Eucalyptus abdita Brooker & Hopper, Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. (0.16); Mentha spicata L. (0.15) and Salvia officinalis L. (0.10). Informant consensus factor (ICF) about usages of medicinal plants ranges from 0.41 to 0.80; the highest level of agreement was determined between the informants and Respiratory System Diseases (0.80). The highest fidelity level (FL) values (100%) were identified in Flourensia cernua DC., Artisia ludoviciana Nutt., and Parthenium incanum Kunth to Gastro-intestinal System Diseases; Eucalyptus abdita Brooker & Hopper, Bougainvillea berberidifolia Heimerl, and Lippia graveolens Kunth to Respiratory System Diseases (RSD) and Cyclolepis genistoides D.Don and Ephedra antisyphilitica Berland. ex C.A.Mey. to Obstetrics, Gynecology and Urinary tract Diseases. These last two medicinal plant species ("palo azul" and "pitoreal") used by the rural communities in Viesca in the treatment of urinary tract infections and kidney stones have not been reported previously. These findings can provide new research directions for further phytochemical studies. The present study revealed that the residents are rich in ethno-medicinal knowledge and actively use medicinal plants to treat various diseases. New phytochemical and pharmacological research are needed to confirm the therapeutic potential and safety of the identified plants.

Ziziphus nummularia: A Comprehensive Review of Its Phytochemical Constituents and Pharmacological Properties

Ziziphus nummularia, a small bush of the Rhamnaceae family, has been widely used in traditional folk medicine, is rich in bioactive molecules, and has many reported pharmacological and therapeutic properties. Objective: To gather the current knowledge related to the medicinal characteristics of Z. nummularia. Specifically, its phytochemical contents and pharmacological activities in the treatment of various diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases, are discussed. Methods: Major scientific literature databases, including PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Chemical Abstracts, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Abstracts, Henriette’s Herbal Homepage, Dr. Duke’s Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases, were searched to retrieve articles related to the review subject. General web searches using Google and Google scholar were also utilized. The search period covered articles published between 1980 and the end of October 2021.The search used the keywords ‘Ziziphus nummularia’, AND (‘phytochemical content’, ‘pharmacological properties, or activities, or effects, or roles’, ‘anti-inflammatory’, ‘anti-drought’, ‘anti-thermal’, ‘anthelmintic’, ‘antidiabetic’,’ anticancer’, ‘anticholinesterase’, ‘antimicrobial’, ‘sedative’, ‘antipyretic’, ‘analgesic’, or ‘gastrointestinal’). Results: This plant is rich in characteristic alkaloids, especially cyclopeptide alkaloids such as nummularine-M. Other phytochemicals, including flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, tannins, and phenolic compounds, are also present. These phytochemicals are responsible for the reported pharmacological properties of Z. nummularia, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, antidiabetic, anticancer, analgesic, and gastrointestinal activities. In addition, Z. nummularia has anti-drought and anti-thermal characteristics. Conclusion: Research into the phytochemical and pharmacological properties of Z. nummularia has demonstrated that this plant is a rich source of novel bioactive compounds. So far, Z. nummularia has shown a varied pharmacological profile (antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and cardioprotective), warranting further research to uncover the therapeutic potential of the bioactives of this plant. Taken together, Z. nummularia may represent a new potential target for the discovery of new drug leads.

Genus Ziziphus for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases

Natural products and traditional medicine are rich sources for developing therapeutics for chronic inflammatory diseases. However, the way from natural products/traditional medicines to Western pharmaceutical practices is not always straightforward. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), chronic diseases are the greatest threat to human health. 3 of 5 people die due to chronic inflammatory disorders worldwide like chronic respiratory diseases, stroke, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, and obesity. Various nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used to reduce inflammation and pain, but there are many side effects of these drugs' administration. Medicinal plants have therapeutic anti-inflammatory effects with low or no side effects. Ziziphus plant species are generally safe and not toxic to humans. Many studies on the Ziziphus species have shown that their therapeutic properties are attributed to the roots, leaves and fruits. Unfortunately, Ziziphus species from different regions worldwide with anti-inflammatory properties have not been documented in a single review paper. Therefore, it is crucial to establish ethnobotanical knowledge and applications of Ziziphus species against chronic inflammatory diseases. The current article exhaustively reviews phytochemical profile, pharmacological studies, toxicological effects, and ethnobotanical uses of Genus Ziziphus in chronic anti-inflammatory diseases. The present review article also highlights the most promising experimental data on Ziziphus extracts and pure compounds active in clinical trials and animal models of chronic inflammatory diseases. This review would be a valuable resource for contemporary researchers in the field to understand the promising role of the Ziziphus genus in chronic inflammatory disorders.

Plants of the Genus Terminalia: An Insight on Its Biological Potentials, Pre-Clinical and Clinical Studies

The evaluation and confirmation of healing properties of several plant species of genus Terminalia based on their traditional uses and the clinical claims are of utmost importance. Genus Terminalia has received more attention to assess and validate the therapeutic potential and clinical approval due to its immense folk medicinal and traditional applications. Various species of Terminalia genus are used in the form of herbal medicine and formulations, in treatment of diseases, including headache, fever, pneumonia, flu, geriatric, cancer, to improve memory, abdominal and back pain, cough and cold, conjunctivitis, diarrhea, heart disorder, leprosy, sexually transmitted diseases, and urinary tract disorders. These are reported to possess numerous biological properties, counting: antibacterial, antifungal, antiinflammatory, antiviral, antiretroviral, antioxidant, and antipa7rasitic. This current research review aims to update the detailed biological activities, pre-clinical and clinical studies of various extracts and secondary metabolites from several plant species under the genus Terminalia, along with information on the traditional uses and chemical composition to develop a promising strategy for their potential applications in the form of medicine or use in modern drug formulations for treating diseases like pneumonia, flu, and other types of viral infections or controlling human contagions.

Genus Ziziphus: A comprehensive review on ethnopharmacological, phytochemical and pharmacological properties

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Ziziphus (Rhamnaceae) contains 58 accepted species that are extensively used by local people and medicinal practitioners in arid and semi-arid regions for the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, diabetic, hypertension, inflammation, intestinal spasm, liver, malaria and other diseases. Aims of this review: This review article documents and critically assesses, for the first time; up to date categorized information about botanical traits, distribution, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological and toxicological effects of Ziziphus species.

METHODS

Information was collected systematically from electronic scientific databases including Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, Web of Science, ACS Publications, Elsevier, SciFinder, Wiley Online Library and CNKI, as well as other literature sources (e.g., books).

KEY FINDINGS

The phytochemical investigations of plants of this genus have led to the identification of about 431 chemical constituents. Cyclopeptide alkaloids and flavonoids are the predominant groups. The crude extracts and isolated compounds exhibit a wide range of in vitro and in vivo pharmacologic effects, including antimicrobial, antitumour, antidiabetic, antidiarrhoeal, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities. Toxicity studies indicate that Ziziphus species seems to be non-toxic at typical therapeutic doses.

CONCLUSION

Phytochemical and pharmacological studies have demonstrated that Ziziphus species are important medicinal herbs with prominent bioactivities. The focus so far has only been on ten species; however, plants of this genus can potentially yield a wide range of other products with different properties. Meticulous studies on pharmaceutical standardisation, mode of action of the active constituents and toxicity of Ziziphus species are needed to meet the growing demands of the pharmaceutical industry and to exploit their preventive and therapeutic potential fully.

An ethnoveterinary study on medicinal plants used by the Buyi people in Southwest Guizhou, China

BACKGROUND

The Buyi (Bouyei) people in Qianxinan Buyi and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Southwest Guizhou, China, have used medicinal plants and traditional remedies for ethnoveterinary practices, such as treating domestic animals during livestock breeding, since ancient times. However, the unique ethnoveterinary practices of the Buyi have rarely been recorded. This study aimed to identify the plants used in their traditional ethnoveterinary practices, and to propose suggestions for future conservation and sustainable use of this knowledge.

METHODS

Ethnobotanical fieldwork was conducted in 19 villages/townships in Qianxinan Prefecture between 2017 and 2018. Data were collected from the local Buyi people through semi-structured interviews and participatory observations. The informant consensus factor (FIC) and use reports (URs) were utilized to evaluate the consent of the current ethnoveterinary practices among the local communities, and 83 informants were interviewed during the field investigations. Plant samples and voucher specimens were collected for taxonomic identification.

RESULTS

A total of 122 plant species, belonging to 60 families and 114 genera, were recorded as being used in ethnoveterinary practices by the Buyi people. The most used ethnoveterinary medicinal plant (EMP) parts included the roots, whole plant, and bulb, and the most common preparation methods included decoction, crushing, and boiling. Some EMPs, such as Quisqualis indica and Paris polyphylla, have special preparation methods. The informant consensus factor (FIC) and use reports (URs) of the EMP species were analyzed. Twenty EMP species with the highest URs were noted as having particular importance in the daily lives of Buyi people in Qianxinan Prefecture.

CONCLUSION

In this study, we identified traditional ethnoveterinary knowledge of the medicinal plants among the Buyi communities in Qianxinan Prefecture. This knowledge has previously been limited to local vets, herders, and aged community members. Plants with important medicinal uses need to be validated phytochemically and pharmacologically in the future, to develop new alternative drugs for veterinary purposes.

Chemical constituents of Calotropis procera latex and ultrastructural effects on Haemonchus contortus

Abstract This study aimed to evaluate the anthelmintic and ultrastructural effects of Calotropis procera latex on Haemonchus contortus. C. procera latex was twice centrifuged at 10,000×g and dialyzed to obtain a fraction rich in proteins, named LP (latex protein), and at 3,000 rpm to obtain a fraction rich in secondary metabolites, named LNP (latex non-protein). Specimens of H. contortus exposed to LNP, LP and PBS in the Adult Worm Motility Test (AWMT) were submitted to scanning (SEM) and transmission (TEM) electron microscopy to verify changes in their ultrastructure. Phytochemical tests in the LNP indicated the presence of phenols, steroids, alkaloids and cardenolides. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) characterized the presence of the compounds gallic acid and quercetin in the LNP. The protein content in the LP was 43.1 ± 1.1 mg/mL and 7.7 ± 0.3 mg/mL in LNP. In AWMT, LNP and LP inhibited the motility of 100% of the nematodes, with LNP being more effective than LP and ivermectin more effective than both (p <0.05). Cuticle changes were observed by SEM and TEM in nematodes treated with LP and LNP. Calotropis procera latex has anthelmintic effects against H. contortus, causing damage to its cuticle and other alterations in its ultrastructure.

Medicinal plants brought by Indian indentured immigrants: A comparative review of ethnopharmacological uses between Mauritius and India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Mauritius is famous for its floricultural diversity and traditions practiced across the island by various ethnic groups. During the British rule in the 1835s, Indian indentured labourers migrated to Mauritius and played a very important role in shaping the Mauritian culture. They brought along their high heritage of traditional knowledge of certain medicinal herbs and spices. Nonetheless, there has been no comparative study to investigate whether these past traditional knowledge are still preserved in Mauritius and India.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To document and compare the traditional uses of medicinal herbs and spices brought by Indian indentured labourers with their current uses in Mauritius and India, and to review pharmacological studies of such plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Locally published textbooks, research dissertations, and relevant records from the 'Mauritiana' section of the University of Mauritius library were scrutinised for possible early records of such herbs and spices brought by Indian indentured immigrants. Field trips and site visits to Mauritius Herbarium and The National Folk Museum were conducted to gather data on their traditional uses as practiced by the Indian indentured immigrants. A literature search was performed to gather the current ethnomedicinal uses of these plants in Mauritius and India using key databases such as ScienceDirect and PubMed, as well as thesis from local university website. Pharmacological studies on these plants were also reviewed in an attempt to compare the ethnomedicinal uses against reported ailments.

RESULTS

Indian labourers brought 18 medicinal plants for medicinal purposes as documented at the folk museum of Indian Immigration. Piper betle L., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., and Curcuma longa L. were common plants used by Indian indentured immigrants against a wide range of ailments. Data obtained from recent ethnomedicinal surveys revealed that A. indica and C. longa were the most traditionally used plants in India, while in Mauritius, C. longa was the most popular plant followed by Allium sativum L. and Ocimum tenuiflorum L. It was also found that all these plants are currently being used against a wide range of diseases in both countries. In addition, several studies have highlighted the pharmacological properties such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-pyretic, and anti-diabetic for some plants.

CONCLUSION

This investigation can be considered as a first attempt to document and compare traditional knowledge of medicinal plants brought by Indian immigrants. We observed that some of these knowledge are preserved and still practiced in Mauritius. It is anticipated that this study will revive the interest in safeguarding and promoting the ancestral knowledge on the uses of such plants.

Ethnoveterinary health management practices using medicinal plants in South Asia - a review

Animal rearing is the major occupation of most population of South Asian countries. Due to lack of resources and limited approach to modern medicine, most of the livestock raisers prefer to use plant-based traditional medicine also referred to as ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM). Indeed, the use of medicinal plants in South Asia dates back to several centuries with documented evidences. However, there is currently a dearth of documentation and compilation of use of medicinal plants for animal diseases in this part of the world. This review aims to provide an up-to-date compilation of common medicinal plants used for the treatment and/or management of common animal diseases in South Asian countries. Extensive literature search was conducted online and relevant data was retrieved from well-known scientific databases. A total of 276 plants belonging to 95 families have been documented to be in common use for managing 14 different categories of animal diseases. Solanaceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, and Leguminosae were most common plant families in terms of their plant species used for EVM. Gastric diseases were commonly reported and accounted for 72 species of plants used for its treatment followed by the miscellaneous disorders category and skin diseases comprising of 65 and 39 plant species respectively. Herbs accounted for 46% of the total plant species, followed by trees (33%), and shrubs (18%). The EVM were applied through different routes of administration; oral administration accounted for 72% followed by topical application 27%, while burning of plant parts to create smoke around animals to repel insects was less common (1%). It is anticipated that the present review will stimulate further ethnoveterinary research among livestock disease management practices in South Asia.

Ethno-veterinary practices in Southern India for captive Asian elephant ailments

ETHENOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

India has a long tradition of practicing Ayurvedic medicine not only for human ailments, but also for the management of livestock in the form of ethno-veterinary practices. Asian elephant is a significant part of Indian culture, and ethno-veterinary practices have extended to manage and cure various ailments of Asian elephant in captivity. Much of this knowledge has been lost in the light of modern practices.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study is aimed at documenting the existing knowledge on ethno-veterinary medicines practiced by elephant keepers (mahouts) in Tamil Nadu and Puducherry.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was carried out between June 2015 and February 2016 employing a questionnaire survey among 50 selected informants (mahouts) with traditional knowledge on plants in veterinary medicine. Information was elicited from the informants on various diseases prevailing among captive elephants and the traditional treatment employed by them.

RESULTS

In total, the study documented 53 plant species belonging to 29 families being used as medicine for 23 types of ailments prevailing among captive elephants. Ferula assa-foetida, Zingiber officinale, Piper longum, P. nigrum, Cuminum cyminum, Trachyspermum roxburghianum and Carum bulbocastanum were the most commonly used plants either independently or in combination. Among them, Ferula assa-foetida (12.4%) and Zingiber officinale (10.4%) had the highest usage. Of the 23 diseases reported, constipation was the most common ailment (14.6%) followed by bloating (8.7%) and flatulence (8.7%).

CONCLUSION

Documentation of this indigenous knowledge is valuable for the communities concerned, both at present and in future and for scientific consideration for wider use of traditional knowledge in treating captive elephants. The study has identified 53 medicinal plants to treat various ailments among captive elephants in southern India. The most frequently used plants in the captive elephant health care practice are F. assafoetida, Z. officinale, P. longum and P.nigrum. Among the 29 families, Apiaceae and Piperaceae are widely used. The leaves are the most useful part of the plants, while paste is the widely used form of preparation. The present findings show that mahouts have wide knowledge about elephant diseases and their treatment using herbal medicine. A more detailed investigation should be designed on priority to document the dying art of ethno-veterinary practices for the long-term conservation of the Asian elephant.

Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants in the south of Kerman, Iran

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The aim of this study was to collect and document information concerning the medicinal plants used by indigenous people and traditional healers in the south of Kerman Province, Iran.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Overall, 64 informants between the ages of 30 and 89 were interviewed about the modes of application and consumption of medicinal plants in the region. Quantitative analysis was conducted that included informant consensus factor (ICF), use value (UV), relative frequency of citation (RFC) and cultural importance index (CI).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the current study, a total of 115 medicinal plants in 41 families were reported in the south of the Kerman region. Apiaceae, Asteraceae and Lamiaceae (with 14 species each) were the families with the most medicinal plants. The most frequently used plant parts were leaves at 26.17% and aerial parts (23.49%). Decoction (53%), liniment (23%) and infusion (9%) were the most common preparation methods. The highest UVs were obtained from the following medicinal plants: Amygdalus eburnea Spach, Genista tinctoria L., Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand., Fortuynia garcinii (Burm.f.) Shuttlew. and Cerasus mahaleb (L.) Mill. The ICF results indicated that cold-flu and fever were the most common diseases (0.67) in the south of Kerman.

CONCLUSION

Based on the current study, the south of Kerman has many potential medicinal plants, and these plants should be the focus of future research.

Medicinal properties of Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn.: A review

Medicinal plants have been a main source of therapeutic agents from ancient time to cure diseases. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. (T. arjuna) is one of the most accepted and beneficial medicinal plants in indigenous system of medicine for the treatment of various critical diseases. This comprehensive review provides various aspects of its ethnomedical, phytochemical, pharmacognostical, pharmacological and clinical significance to different diseases particularly in cardiovascular conditions. This plant has a good safety outline when used in combination with other conventional drugs. This review highlights various medicinal properties of T. arjuna through different studies such as antioxidant, hypotensive, anti-atherogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-mutagenic and gastro-productive effect.

Natural remedies used by Bunong people in Mondulkiri province (Northeast Cambodia) with special reference to the treatment of 11 most common ailments

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In this paper we present a comprehensive ethnomedicinal study conducted in Mondulkiri province. Traditional knowledge about natural medicine (plants, animals, mushrooms) was investigated in Cambodia's largest indigenous community: the Bunong people. The survey aims to document the medicinal plant use of this ethnic, by focusing on the eleven most frequent diseases encountered in the area, in order to highlight species that could be recommended in public health programs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

During the years 2013 and 2014, 202 villagers were interviewed in 28 villages from the five districts in Mondulkiri. Two types of methodology were employed: (1) an ethnobotanical field survey (walk-in-the-wood interviews) and (2) semi-structured household interviews with a special emphasis on the treatment of 11 most common ailments encountered in the area. Medicinal plants and mushrooms were collected and identified together with medicinal animals. The factor informant consensus (FIC) and fidelity level (FL) were calculated.

RESULTS

Bunong people use a total of 214 plants belonging to 72 families, 1 mushroom and 22 animal species in their traditional healthcare practices in order to treat 51 different ailments. Among the medicinal plants, Fabaceae was the most predominant family; Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King and H.Rob. (Asteraceae), Zingiber montanum (J.Koenig) Link ex A.Dietr. (Zingiberaceae) and Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. (Crassulaceae) were the most cited medicinal plants; and four ailments (cold/fever, diarrhea, postpartum disorders and stomachache) were described as major ailments in the community. The root was the most important part of plants used, and decoction was the most cited method of preparation. During our survey, we also discovered a "new to science" plant species called Ardisia mondulkiriensis Hul and Chassagne, and we recorded for the second time the plant species recently described, Solanum sakhanii Hul.

CONCLUSION

Most of the species reported for the treatment of the 11 most frequent ailments have already been proven to be efficient and safe. Furthermore, 10 plant species are reported for the first time as medicinal and some of them are widely used in the community. Further pharmacological and phytochemical investigations should be undergone to assess the pharmaceutical potential of these species. While undergoing considerable changes, Bunong people have maintained extensive traditional medicine knowledge. As this indigenous hill tribe depend mainly on natural remedies for their daily healthcare, environmental preservation is of high importance for the community.

Observations on traditional usage of ethnomedicinal plants in humans and animals of Kangra and Chamba districts of Himachal Pradesh in North-Western Himalaya, India

ETHNOBOTANICAL RELEVANCE

Medicinal plants are frequently used by Gaddi and Gujjar tribes of Kangra and Chamba districts of Himachal Pradesh, India to cure various ailments in humans and livestock. Therefore, extensive field work was conducted to document the traditional use of ethnomedicinal plants by these tribes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Direct interviews of 208 informants were conducted. The data generated through interviews was analysed using quantitative tools such as use-value (UV), factor informant consensus (Fic) and fidelity level (Fl).

RESULTS

A total of 73 plant species in 67 genera and 40 families were observed to be medicinal and used to cure 22 ailment categories. The highest number of ethnomedicinal plants was recorded from the family Asteraceae followed by Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, Acanthaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Polygonaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae. Leaves were the most frequently used plant part used to treat various ailments followed by whole plant and roots or rhizomes. Ajuga parviflora, Berberis lycium, Viola canescens, Vitex negundo and Zanthoxylum armatum were the most important medicinal plants used for treating human diseases, whereas Achyranthes bidentata, Aloe sp., Cassia fistula, Podophyllum hexandrum and Pogostemon benghalensis were the most important medicinal plants used for treating animal diseases as per use value. The important ailment categories classified on the basis of factor informant consensus were gastrointestinal and respiratory disorders.

CONCLUSION

The present study revealed that people of the study area are extensively using the ethnomedicinal plants to cure various ailments. Plants with high use value and fidelity level should be subjected to pharmacological investigation for scientific validation.

Emerging CAM Ziziphus nummularia with in vivo sedative-hypnotic, antipyretic and analgesic attributes

Ziziphus nummularia from Rhamnaceae family is traditionally used for sedative-hypnotic, antipyretic and analgesic purposes; however, scientific validations are lacking. This in vivo study was undertaken to verify the above ameliorative properties of Z. nummularia root methanolic extract. Various fractions of the extract were assayed on Balb/c mice by open field, Brewer’s yeast-induced hyperthermia and acetic acid-induced writhing experiments. The significance of the outcomes was analyzed with statistical tests. Various fractions of the extract exhibited marked dose-dependent (p < 0.05) sedative-hypnotic and antipyretic activities. The biological efficacies were most pronounced between 50 and 100 mg/kg. Further, the acetic acid-induced abdominal constrictions were significantly (p < 0.05) attenuated by the extract. Chloroform fraction of the extract was most dominant followed by ethyl acetate. The demonstrated therapeutic attributes of Z. nummularia extract can be exploited to isolate pharmaceutically relevant compounds.

Ethnopharmacological studies on the uses of Euphorbia hirta in the treatment of dengue in selected indigenous communities in Pangasinan (Philippines)

Aim:

Euphorbia hirta is the most widely used plant in the folkloric treatment of dengue in the Philippines. This study documents the anecdotal uses of E. hirta in the treatment of dengue in 3 indigenous communities in Pangasinan from April to June of 2015.

Materials and Methods:

The number of use reports pertaining to symptoms of dengue and other diseases were tallied from 82 informants living in Anda Island, Mt. Colisao and Mt. Balungao. The demographics of the informants as well as the corrected major use agreements (cMUAs) and fidelity levels (FLs) of each reported symptom of dengue were calculated. The major dosage forms used during treatment were also tallied.

Results:

Respondents, dominated by the age group 60-80 and mostly females with at least primary and secondary education, provided information on the use reports of E. hirta. High FL values and cMUA of at least 35% were obtained for cardinal symptoms of dengue-related to bleeding episodes while low cMUAs (i.e. 2-4%) were obtained for symptoms during the recovery phase. High FL values were obtained for symptoms observed during the febrile phase. The most widely used dosage forms are decoctions of the leaves and barks of E. hirta.

Conclusion:

This study was able to qualify the uses of E. hirta in the treatment of dengue in the 3 communities surveyed.

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Palamalai region of Eastern Ghats, India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

During the last few decades there has been an increasing interest in the study of medicinal plants with their traditional use and related pharmacological research all over the World. This paper enumerated folk medicinal plants used by Malayali tribal people in an unexplored and biodiversity rich region of Eastern Ghats in southern India.

AIM OF STUDY

The aim of this study is to collect and identify the plants used in medicinal therapy by the local people and professional traditional healers with quantitative analysis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An ethnobotanical survey was carried out during January to December 2014 among the Malayali tribal people in four villages of Palamalai region in Eastern Ghats, India. The information was obtained through open and semi-structured face-to-face interviews with the local knowledgeable people and professional traditional healers. The statistical analysis, use value, family use value, informants' consensus factor, fidelity level, frequency of citation, relative frequency citation and informants' agreements ratio were calculated for the quantitative study of ethnomedicinal data.

RESULTS

A total of 118 plant species belonging to 95 genera and 55 families dominated by the families like Leguminosae, Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were enumerated with detailed information on parts used, method of preparation, mode of administration and ailments treated. Leaves were mostly used plant part and predominantly used herbal preparations were decoction and paste. Moringa oleifera Lam. was reported by all the interviewed informants and gives the highest UV of 3.9 with 78 use reports due to its diverse medicinal uses.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrated the need for importance of documenting the traditional knowledge of forest dwelling people. As a result of the study, Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet., Andrographis echioides (L.f.) Nees., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Canarium strictum Roxb., Centella asiatica (L.) Urban., Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. and Tribulus terrestris (L.) were recommended for further ethnopharmacological studies since these plants were recorded with high UV, IAR, RFC and FL values.

Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in villages of Çatak (Van-Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants in the villages of Çatak in the Eastern Anatolia Region. Recording such data calls for urgency. This is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are carried out by means of FIC method in Eastern (Van) part of Turkey.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to identify the wild plants collected for medicinal purposes by locals of Çatak which is located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, and to identify the uses and local names of these wild plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2010-2012). During this period, 78 plants taxa were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The plant taxa were collected within the scope of the study; and herbarium materials were prepared. In addition, the relative significance value of the taxa was determined, and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study.

RESULTS

We have found out in the literature review of the plants included in our study that 78 plant taxa are already used for medicinal purposes while 19 plants are not available among the records in the literature. The most common families are Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae. We include in our study and report for the first time the medicinal uses of Alchemilla buseriana Rothm., Astragalus longifolius Lam., Cephalaria microcephala Boiss., Euphorbia grisophylla M.S. Khan, Fritillaria crassifolia Boiss. & Huet. subsp. kurdica (Boiss. & Noe) Rix, Fritillaria pinardii Boiss., Malabaila lasiocarpa Boiss., Nepeta betonicifolia C.A. Mey., Onobrychis altissima Grossh., Onobrychis carduchorum C.C. Townsend, Papaver bracteatum Lindl., Phlomis tuberosa L., Psephellus karduchorum (Boiss.) Wagenitz, Scutellaria orientalis L. subsp. pichleri (Stapf.) Edmondson, Stachys kurdica Boiss. & Hohen var. kurdica, Tanacetum kotschyi (Boiss.) Grierson, Tanacetum zahlbruckneri (Nâb.) Grierson, Turanecio eriospermus (DC.) Hamzaoğlu, Verbascum pyramidatum M.Bieb. Names of local plants in Turkey vary especially due to vernaculars. The plants that the locals of Çatak use are called with the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia.

CONCLUSION

We found out that locals living in the research area use for therapeutic purpose 78 plants taxa which belong to 22 families. Turkish citizens with different ethnic backgrounds took the questionnaire. These people use these wild plants in treatment of several diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies on the wild plants which grow in Çatak proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated that the therapeutic plants that grow in Çatak are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of similar diseases.

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally important shrubs and trees of Himalayan region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Present study was commenced with an aim to document the indigenous knowledge of medicinally important shrubs and trees of Himalayan region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. This is the first contribution to the quantitative ethnobotany of this region, as no reported data focusing on shrubs and trees from the area have been published. Study reported the ethnobotanical significance of medicinal plants for the treatment of various diseases.

METHOD

Study was conducted during 2012-2014 following standard ethnobotanical methods. The ethnomedicinal data was collected through informed consent semi- structured interviews of 160 key informants. Documented data was analyzed by using quantitative indices of informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL), use value (UV) and relative frequency citation (RFC).

RESULTS

A total of 73 shrub and tree species belonging to 56 genera and 37 families were reported to be used ethnomedicinally for the treatment of various ailments. Medicinal plant diversity showed that Rosaceae was dominating family with (9 spp.) followed by Moraceae (7 spp.), Euphorbiaceae, Mimosaceae, Pinaceae, Rhamnaceae (4 spp. each), Oleaceae (3 spp.), Apocynaceae, Caesalpinaceae, Ebenaceae, Fagaceae, Lythraceae, Papilionaceae, Acanthaceae, Verbenaceae (2 spp. each) while remaining 22 families were represented by one species each. Leaves (23%) were highly utilized plant parts, followed by fruits (22%), bark (18%), seeds (10%), roots (9%), flowers (8%), whole plant and aerial parts (4% each) and stem (2%). Modes of preparation fall into 14 categories including powder (33 reports) followed by decoction (29 reports), paste (22 reports), juice (18 reports), infusion (12 reports), raw (8 reports), extract and latex (5 reports each), gum and oil (4 reports each), fresh part and pulp (2 reports each), chewed and cooked (1 report each). The highest FIC was recorded for Gastro-intestinal disorders (0.58) followed by nail, skin and hair disorders (0.44). Maximum fidelity level (FL=100%) was expressed by Abies pindrow, Adhatoda vasica, Bauhinia variegata and Cedrela serrata. Based on use value Juglans regia (0.88) was found most significant species followed by Acacia nilotica (0.83), Phyllanthus emblica (0.81), Pinus roxburghii (0.75) and Punica granatum (0.71).

CONCLUSION

The area has a rich diversity of medicinally important shrub and tree species. The tradition of using plants for medicinal purposes is still alive in the local community but recently this tradition is gradually declining in new generation. Therefore awareness is needed to be raised among the local people on sustainable use and conservation of local flora.

An ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Espiye and its surrounding (Giresun-Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants in Espiye in the Black Sea Region. Recording such data calls for urgency. This is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are carried out by means of FIC method in Northern (Espiye-Giresun) part of Turkey. This study aims to identify the wild plants collected for medicinal purposes by locals of Espiye which is located in the Black Sea Region of Turkey, and to identify the uses and local names of these wild plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2012-2014). During this period, information about medicinal use of 55 wild and 15 cultivated plants were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. Through face-to-face interviews, we identified and recorded demographic characteristics of the respondents. We interviewed 128 persons who are over the age of 29. The plant taxa were collected within the scope of the study; and herbarium materials were prepared. In addition, the relative significance value of the taxa was determined, and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study.

RESULTS

We have found out in the literature review of the plants included in our study that 70 plant taxa are already used for medicinal purposes while 3 plants are not available among the records in the literature. The most common families are Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, and Ericaceae. We include in our study and report for the first time the medicinal uses of Alchemilla crinita Buser, Stachys sylvatica L., and Thymus leucotrichus Hal. var. leucotrichus Hal. Names of local plants in Turkey vary especially due to vernaculars. The plants that the locals of Espiye use are called with the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia.

CONCLUSION

We found out that locals living in the research area use for therapeutic purpose 70 plants taxa which belong to 36 families. Turkish citizens with different ethnic backgrounds took the questionnaire. These people use these wild plants in treatment of several diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies on the wild plants which grow in Espiye proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated that the therapeutic plants that grow in Espiye are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of similar diseases.

Ethnobotany of medicinal plants in the Thar Desert (Sindh) of Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The traditional use of medicinal plants in health-care practices among the rural communities provides the basis for natural drug discovery development. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first quantitative ethnobotanical investigation on the use of medicinal plants in the Thar Desert (Sindh) of Pakistan.

METHODS

In total, 530 local informants and traditional healers were interviewed, using semistructured interviews. Various quantitative indices such as relative frequency of citation (RFC), use value (UV), informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL), relative importance (RI), and the Jaccard Index (JI) were applied to the documented data.

RESULTS

The traditional medical uses of 87 plant species belonging to 32 families were reported on. Amaranthaceae was the most-frequently cited (nine species), followed by Cucurbitaceae and Euphorbiaceae (six species each). The most dominant life form was herbs (73.56%). The most-used plant parts were leaves, with 65 reports (28.88%), followed by seeds (16%). The common mode of preparation reported was powder (25.75%), with 74% herbal medicines obtained from fresh plant materials.

CONCLUSION

The ethnobotanical result documented in this study provides practical evidence about the use of medicinal plants among the inhabitants of the Thar Desert. Further, the findings revealed that the medicinal plants of the area are a major source of herbal drugs for primary health care used among the rural communities. This survey can be used as baseline information for further scientific investigation to develop new plant-based commercial drugs.

Ethno-medicinal study of plants used for treatment of human ailments, with residents of the surrounding region of forest fragments of Paraná, Brazil

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study aims to document the traditional knowledge on the use of medicinal plants in the neighborhood of the protected area "Parque Estadual da Cabeça do Cachorro", a fragment of seasonal semideciduous forests. This vegetation is intensely fragmented and disturbed; despite its importance there are few records of the traditional knowledge of medicinal species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty-four residents in the neighborhood of the protected area "Parque Estadual da Cabeça do Cachorro" were interviewed. The residents were questioned about preparation techniques, recommended doses, ways of administration and healing properties of various parts of the plants and were invited to walk through the park to collect in situ some species of plants. The recognized medicinal species were identified and traditional knowledge was systematized. Quantitative indices (Informant Consensus Factor - FIC and Use Value - UV) were calculated.

RESULTS

115 species of medicinal plants belonging to 54 botanical families were cited. Asteraceae (n=14), Fabaceae (n=11), Myrtaceae (n=6), Bignoniaceae, Solanaceae and Verbenaceae (n=5) were the most species-rich. The highest use values were calculated for Achyrocline satureioides, Aristolochia triangularis and Bauhinia forficata (0.63). Moreover, the informants consensus about usages of medicinal plants ranges from 0.024 to 0.663, which shows high level of agreements among the informants for gastro-intestinal and respiratory system diseases. Furthermore, for the first time, new traditional medicinal uses of Asteraceae (Chromolaena pedunculosa Hook. & Arn.), Commelinaceae (Tradescantia fluminensis Vell.) and Polypodiaceae (Microgramma vacciniifolia Langsd. & Fisch.) species were reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Present study revealed that the residents of the surrounding region of forest fragments of Paraná are rich in ethno-medicinal knowledge and rely on plant-based remedies for common health problems. As in many parts of Brazil knowledge of the past is combined with new knowledge that has recently been incorporated emphasizing the cultural changes that this area is experiencing. Despite the use of different species of plants are crucial to their way of life, there is concern that these rich popular knowledge may disappear in the future as a result of a possible modernization of this area.

Quantitative ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants used by the Ati Negrito indigenous group in Guimaras island, Philippines

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study is (1) a documentation of medicinal plant use in traditional therapies, and (2) an evaluation of the medicinal plant knowledge and practices of the Ati Negrito indigenous people in Guimaras Island, Philippines.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A semi-structured interview was conducted to 65 informants in order to determine the medicinal plants and their uses in traditional therapies. The plants were collected, identified and deposited as voucher specimens. Plant importance was determined using quantitative ethnobotanical indices such as Use Value (UV), Fidelity Level (FL) and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF). Descriptive and the inferential statistics Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to measure and compare the informants׳ medicinal plant use knowledge and practices.

RESULTS

This study was able to identify 142 medicinal plant taxa in 55 families used in 16 categories of diseases. Plants with the highest recorded UVs were Psidium guajava (2.52), Blumea balsamifera (2.15) and Cocos nucifera (2.06). A total of 24 species were found to have 100% FL values with Senna alata, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and Breynia vitis-idaea recording the highest number of use-mentions (48) for treating white spot, boils, and child sleeplessness, malaise and fatigue, respectively. The highest ICF value (1.00) was cited for Category 6 (Diseases of the ear) and Category 16 (Factors that influence health status and services). Finally, significant differences in medicinal plant use knowledge were recorded when informants were grouped according to location, educational level, gender and age.

CONCLUSIONS

This documentation of medicinal plants and their uses shows the rich tradition in ethno-medicinal knowledge of the Ati Negrito indigenous people although results might also imply that knowledge is eroding. Nevertheless, this study could open an avenue for pharmacological research works, or serve as reference for future quantitative ethnobotanical investigations.

Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Geçitli and its surrounding (Hakkari-Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants in the Geçitli Township in the Eastern Anatolia Region. Recording such data calls for urgency this is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are carried out by means of the FIC method in Eastern (Hakkari) part of Turkey. Aim of the study This study aims to identify the wild plants collected for medicinal purposes by locals of Geçitli which is located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, and to identify the uses and local names of these wild plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2008-2010). During this period, 70 plants taxa and one mushroom were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The plant taxa were collected within the scope of the study; and herbarium materials were prepared. In addition, the relative significance value of the taxa was determined, and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study.

RESULTS

We have found out in the literature review of the plants included in our study that 70 plant taxa and one mushroom are already used for medicinal purposes while 11 plants are not available among the records in the literature. The most common families are Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae. We include in our study and report for the first time the medicinal uses of Alchemilla hessii Rothm., Cirsium pubigerum (Desf.) DC. var. spinosum Pet., Diplotaenia cachrydifolia Boiss., Euphorbia macrocarpa Boiss. & Buhse, Galium consanguineum Boiss., Inula helenium L. subsp. vanensis Grierson, Johrenia dichotoma DC. subsp. sintenisii Bornm., Pelargonium quercetorum Agnew, Rosa heckeliana Tratt. subsp. vanheurckiana (Crĕp.) Ö. Nilsson, Salix aegyptiaca L., Taraxacum montanum (C.A. Mey.) DC. Names of local plants in Turkey vary especially due to vernaculars. The plants that the locals of Geçitli use are called with the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia.

CONCLUSION

We found out that locals living in the research area use for therapeutic purpose 70 plants taxa and one mushroom which belong to 28 families. Turkish citizens with different ethnic backgrounds took the questionnaire. These people use these wild plants in treatment of several diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies on the wild plants which grow in Geçitli proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated that the therapeutic plants that grow in Geçitli are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of similar diseases.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants in Elazığ (Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study has identified not only the wild plants collected for medical purposes by local people of Elazığ Province in the Eastern Anatolia Region, but also the uses and local names of these plants. These resources are usually regarded as part of a culture׳s traditional knowledge. Therefore, the aim of this study is to collect information from local population concerning the use of medicinal plants of the Elazığ region; identify the most important medicinal plants used; determine the relative importance of the species surveyed and calculate the informant consensus factor (FIC) in relation to medicinal plant use.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2012-2013). A questionnaire was administered to the local people, through face-to-face interviews (Appendix A). Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The plant species were collected within the scope of the study; herbarium materials were prepared; and the specimens were entitled. The collected data were used to calculate the FIC and the plant use values.

RESULTS

74 Plants were found to be used for medical purposes before in the literature analysis of the plants used in our study, while 6 plants were found to have no literature records. Our results showed that the highest use values were recorded for the species Urtica dioica L. (0.46) and Rosa canina L. (0.42), while the highest FIC was cited for skin diseases (0.60).

CONCLUSION

Data obtained showed that in the studied area the folk use of plants is alive and still derives from daily practice. Evaluation of pharmacological activity for the promising medicinal plants is suggested.

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the local people of Alaşehir (Manisa) in Turkey

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This paper represents the first large-scale ethnobotanical study in the Alaşehir and its surrounding (Manisa/Turkey). There are scarcely any studies for using plants. There is urgency in recording such data. This is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are done by ICF (Informant Consensus Factor) method. This study aimed to identify plants collected for medicinal purposes by the local people of Alaşehir, located in the Aegean Region of Turkey, and to document the traditional names, preparation and uses of these plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field study was carried out over a period of approximately 2 years (2010-2012) in Alaşehir. During this period, 137 vascular plant specimens were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, local plant names, utilized parts and preparation methods of the plants were investigated and recorded. In the scope of the study, medicinal plant species and related information were collected; herbarium materials were prepared; and the specimens were entitled. Field research was conducted by collecting ethnobotanical information during structured and semi-structured interviews with native knowledgeable people in territory. In addition, the relative importance value of species was determined and ICF was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study.

RESULTS

A total of 137 medicinal plants belonging to 58 families were identified in the region. Among them, 105 species are wild and 32 species are cultivated plant. The most dominant medicinal plant families were Asteraceae (>13%), Lamiaceae (>11%), Rosaceae (>7%), and Fabaceae (>4%), again; the most common preparations were infusion and decoction. It was found that Origanum onites L., Urtica urens, Thymus zygioides Griseb., Matricaria chamomilla L., Salvia tomentosa Mill., Cerasus avium (L.), Tilia argentea Desf. ex DC., Hyoscyamus niger L., Urtica pilulifera L., Anethum graveolens L., Euphorbia rigida Bieb., Hypericum perforatum L., Paliurus spina-christi Mill., Rosa canina L., Viscum album L. subsp. austriacum (Wiesb.) Vollman, Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn., Elymus repens (L.) Gould and Juglans regia L. were the most commonly used species. The traditional medicinal plants have been mostly used for the treatment respiratory tract diseases (14.1%), gastro-intestinal diseases (10%), kidney problems (7.3%), diabetes (7.1%), cholesterol (5%), rheumatism (4%), cancer various (4%), cardiovascular problems (3.1%) and burn (3%).

CONCLUSION

Gathering, processing and consuming wild edible plants are still practiced in all the studied Alaşehir areas. These plants, used in the treatment of many different diseases, are freely harvested in this region at abundant amounts. Due to the increasing health service facilities in the area, herbal medicine, seemed to be more related to health care and disease prevention than cure.

Ethnopharmacological study of medicinal plants used in the treatment of CNS disorders in Sinai Peninsula, Egypt

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

To provide ethnopharmacological information on the use of medicinal plants for central nervous system (CNS) disorders in the Sinai Peninsula region (Egypt). To collect, analyze and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about these medicinal plants in the Sinai Peninsula region with 61,000 km (2) and 379,000 inhabitants.

METHODOLOGY

Field work was concluded between March 2006 and May 2011, using semi-structured questionnaire with 700 informants (mean age: 59; 100% men) from 117 settlements of 17 Bedouin tribes. Transects walks in wild herbal plant collection areas and bibliographical review on the collected plants were also conducted. The Interview/ Inhabitant index (I/P), relative importance value of the species and informant consensus factor (FIC) were calculated.

RESULTS

More than 300 species were traditionally used in folk medicine in the Sinai Peninsula; 101 of these species belonging to 40 families were reported as useful in different CNS disorders. Only 5 species are endemic of the studied area. All different part plants were used, leaves and aerial parts being the most frequent. Most of the remedies were prepared as infusion or decoction, while oral administration was the most common way to be used. Gastrointestinal (67.3%) and respiratory disorders (42.57%) were also reported as frequently treated by Bedouins with herbal remedies.

CONCLUSIONS

Only a few species were found where the traditional use is supported by pharmacological studies (Acacia nilotica, Achillea fragrantissima, Ajuga iva or Mentha longifolia). No bibliographical references in the scientific literature were found for 22 species (21.78%); finally, several studies were published with different pharmacological activities than those provided by Bedouins.

Analgesic and anti-inflammatory studies of cyclopeptide alkaloid fraction of leaves of Ziziyphus nummularia

Ziziyphus nummularia (family: Rhamnaceae) is a thorny small bush, grows in abundance in the grazing lands of the arid areas of Rajasthan, India. It is an important ethnomedicinal plant of the Thar Desert; local inhabitants use every part of the plant as medicine. Kernels are prescribed in pregnancy as soporific, antiemetic and for relieving abdominal pain. The insect gall is powered and given orally with water to cure bone fracture. Crushed root is applied on the paining shoulder of the bullock. The decoction of leaves is used for the treatment of cough and cold; leaves are also regarded as diaphoretic and prescribed in typhoid. Paste of leaves is used for healing of cuts, boils and cutaneous disease. It is widely used in pain and inflammatory conditions. Z. nummularia contains a unique group of alkaloids known as cyclopeptide alkaloids, in continuation of our work carried out on the leaves of Z. nummularia , present study was initiated to explore antiinflammatory and analgesic potential of cyclopeptide alkaloids isolated from the leaves of Z. nummularia (IFZN). Anti-inflammatory activity was tested against rat paw oedema, mouse peritonitis and cotton pellet granuloma. For screening of analgesic activity, acetic acid induced writhing, tail flick and hot plate test were performed. IFZN 30 mg/kg shows the anti-oedematogenic effect against paw oedema induced by carrageenan, dextran, serotonin and histamine; IFZN 20 and 30 mg/kg were found to have highly significant anti-nociceptive effects. Result of pharmacological studies indicated that IFZN is a potent and efficacious analgesic agent. The analgesic activity of IFZN is mediated by the peripheral as well as central pathways.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants in Solhan (Bingöl-Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study has identified not only the wild plants collected for medical purposes by local people of Solhan District in the Eastern Anatolia Region, but also the uses and local names of these plants. It tried to provide a source for researchers studying in ethnobotany, pharmacology and chemistry by comparing the information obtained from traditionally used herbs with previous laboratory studies.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to identify wild plants collected for medical purposes by the local people of Solhan District located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey and to determine the uses and local names of these plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2011-2012). During this period, 214 vascular plant specimens were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The plant species were collected within the scope of the study; herbarium materials were prepared; and the specimens were entitled. In addition, the relative importance value of the species was determined and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study. Our research area also includes people with Kurdish and Zaza ethnic origins.

RESULTS

82 plants were found to be used for medical purposes before in the literature analysis of the plants used in our study, while 9 plants were found to have no literature records. The most common families are Asteraceae (12 plants), Rosaceae (10 plants), and Lamiaceae (9 plants). The medicinal uses of Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., Arum elongnatum Steven, Astragalus lamarckii Boiss., Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., Crataegus atrosanguinea Pojark., Hordeum bulbosum L., Pastinaca armena Fisch. & Mey., Prunus kurdica Fenzl ex Fritsch, Sium sisarum L. var. lancifolium (M. Bieb.) Thell. that we found were used in our study area and recorded for the first time. No information could be obtained regarding the names of two wild plants that are being used in Solhan. In Turkey, local plant names display differences especially due to local dialects. The plants used in Solhan are known by the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia.

CONCLUSION

In the research area, local people were found to use 82 plants from 31 families for curative purposes. The respondents of the questionnaire are Turkish citizens, with various ethnic backgrounds. Mean age of the respondents was 55 years. These plants are used in the treatment of many diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies derived from the plants growing in Solhan proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated that the curative plants that grow in Solhan are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of similar diseases. These plants, used for the treatment of various diseases, are abundantly found in this region. Drying of the medicinal plants enabled the local people to use them in every season of the year.

Ethno-medicinal study of plants used for treatment of human and livestock ailments by traditional healers in South Omo, Southern Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Plants have traditionally been used for treatment of human and livestock ailments in Ethiopia by different ethnic and social groups. However, this valuable source of knowledge is not adequately documented, which impedes their widespread use, evaluation and validation. Here, we recorded indigenous knowledge and standard practices for human and livestock disease control, of three ethnic groups (Aari, Maale and Bena-Tsemay) in South Omo Zone of Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State, Ethiopia.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was carried out using a semi-structured questionnaire to document knowledge of 50 traditional healers (40 male and 10 female) in medicinal plant use for treatment of human and livestock ailments. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze and summarize the ethno-botanical data.

RESULTS

Ninety-one plants, with claimed medicinal properties against a total of 34 human and livestock ailments, were reported and botanically identified as belonging to 57 genera and 33 plant families. Most of the plant species reported belonged to one of seven major families: Lamiaceae, Solanaceae, Menispermiaceae, Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Plumbaginaceae and Geraniaceae. Woody plants (shrubs 21% and trees 29%) were the major growth form used, whilst roots (40%) and leaves (35%) were the major plant parts used in the study areas. Healers mostly practice oral administration of plant preparations (65%). Multiple medicinal plants were cited against particular ailments, and mixing of two or more different medicinal plants (14.3%) against a single ailment was also commonly reported.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that traditional medicine, mainly involving the use of medicinal plants, is playing a significant role in meeting the primary healthcare needs of the three ethnic groups. Acceptance of traditional medicine and limited access to modern healthcare facilities could be considered as the main factors for the continuation of the practice. Documented knowledge of the traditional healers can be used to support the country's human and livestock health care system and improve lives and livelihoods. Information generated will be used in future studies to validate bioactivity of selected medicinal plants used by traditional healers, so to increase their acceptability in health care systems both nationally and internationally.

Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya (Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study has identified not only the wild plants collected for medical purposes by local people of Malatya Province in the Eastern Anatolia Region, but also the uses and local names of these plants. It tried to provide a source for researchers studying in ethnobotany, pharmacology and chemistry by comparing the information obtained from traditionally used herbs with previous laboratory studies.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In Turkey, use of plants for medical purposes has been a tradition. This study aims to identify wild plants collected for medical purposes by the local people of Malatya Province, located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, and to establish the uses and local names of these plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2010-2011). A questionnaire was administered to the local people, through face-to-face interviews. During this period, 330 vascular plant specimens were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The plant species were collected within the scope of the study; herbarium materials were prepared; and the specimens were entitled. In addition, the relative importance value of the species was determined and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study.

RESULTS

In the area of research, 132 individuals who had knowledge about plants were interviewed. Mean age of the respondents was 44 years (in 35-73 years range). 108 plants were found to be used for medical purposes before in the literature analysis of the plants used in our study, while 15 plants were found to have no literature records. The most common families are: Asteraceae (21 plants), Lamiaceae (14 plants), and Rosaceae (12 plants). Local people were recorded to use the aerial parts, branches, flowers, fruits, latex, leaves, matured fruits, peduncle, resin, rhizomes, root bark, roots, seeds and style of the plants. Besides, it was observed that they dried and stored plants in unfavorable seasons in order to use them later. The medicinal uses of Heracleum antasiaticum Manden., Pimpinella olivieroides Boiss. & Hausskn., Scandix iberica Bieb., Taraxacum hybernum Stev., Tripleurospermum transcaucasicum (Manden.) Pobed., Cerastium chlorifolium Fisch. & Mey., Andrachne telephioides L., Euphorbia denticulata Lam., Astragalus cephalotes Banks. & Sol. var. brevicalyx Eig., Geranium ibericum Cav., Cyclotrichium nivenum (Boiss.) Manden. & Scheng., Salvia syriaca L., Papaver arenarium Bieb., Dactylis glomerata L., Polygonum arenarium Waldst. & Kit. that we found were used in our study area and recorded for the first time. No information could be obtained regarding the names of eight wild plants that are being used in Malatya. In Turkey, local plant names display differences especially due to ethnographic reasons. The plants used in Malatya are known by the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia. Our research area also includes people with Kurdish and Zaza ethnic origins. The respondents of the questionnaire are Turkish citizens.

CONCLUSION

These plants are used in the treatment of many diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study from derived the plants growing in Malatya with the experimental data obtained in previous laboratory studies proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated that curative plants that grow in Malatya are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of the same or similar diseases. These plants, used for the treatment of many varying diseases, are abundantly found in this region. Drying enabled local people to use medicinal plants in every seasons of the year. The plant flora of Malatya is threatened by such factors as grazing, expansion of new agricultural lands, and unsustainable picking of plants to generate income. Steps should be taken immediately to ensure the inclusion of relevant flora within conservation designations.

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants and traditional therapies on Batan Island, the Philippines

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

We studied the local knowledge and uses of medicinal plants among the Ivatan people of Batan Island by documenting their traditional practices.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To identify the types of medicinal plants used in self-care by the indigenous people of Batan Island, the Philippines and to investigate the extent to which the plants are used. Conservation of medicinal plants and natural resources is becoming increasingly important; thus, this research aims to collect information from local people concerning the use of medicinal plants on Batan Island.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 116 informants were interviewed, allowing for calculated informant consensus factors (ICF), use value (UV), and fidelity levels (FL) for each medicinal plant species used to cure various ailments. This helped to establish a consensus on which species are effective for particular ailments, as well as the species' relative importance, and enabled us to understand the extent of the potential utilization of each species.

RESULTS

We describe the therapeutic effects of 112 plant species used medicinally against 13 categories of ailments. The highest ICF value (1.00) was cited for diseases of the ear and respiratory system and for use during pregnancy, childbirth and the postnatal period. The maximum FL of 100% was found for Carica papaya, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, Musa sapientum, and Pedilanthus tithymaloides, used for the treatment of constipation, cuts and wounds, diarrhea, and dislocations and fractures, respectively. The highest UV was for Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (0.67). All plants with high UV were used for exogenous diseases, certain infectious and parasitic diseases, injuries, poisonings and other consequences of external factors, and diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues. In addition to its use for endogenous disease and lifestyle-related diseases and illnesses, Moringa oleifera is also used for diseases of the circulatory system, with a UV of 0.57 and Cocos nucifera is used for diseases of the genitourinary system, with a UV of 0.56.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that many plant species play an important role in local healing practices and that knowledge of traditional medicine is still utilized and plays a significant role on Batan Island. The documentation of this rich traditional ethno-medicinal knowledge has furnished us with novel information that not only will provide recognition of this undocumented knowledge but also could provide new avenues for pharmacological investigations to improve healthcare for a range of ailments.

An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Edremit Gulf (Balıkesir-Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on medical plants in the Western Region of Turkey. There is urgency in recording such data. This is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are done by FIC method in western part of Turkey.

AIM OF STUDY

This study aimed to identify plants collected for medical purposes by the local people of Edremit Gulf, located in the Western Region of Turkey, and to document the uses and local names of these plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study, conducted between 2007 and 2010, gathered information on the medicinal plant species traditionally used in Edremit Bay, Turkey and the local names of these plants. In the scope of the study, medicinals plant species and related information were collected; herbarium materials were prepared; and the specimens were entitled. Field research was conducted by collecting ethnobotanical information during structured and semi-structured interviews with native knowledgeable people in territory. In addition, the relative importance value of species was determined and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study.

RESULTS

A total of 118 medical plants belonging to 50 families were identified in the region. Among them, 99 species are wild and 19 species are cultivated plant. The most common medicinal plant families were Lamiaceae (>18%), Asteraceae (>11%), Rosaceae (>7%); the most common preparations were infusion and decoction. It was found that Hypericum perforatum, Lavandula stoechas, Salviatomentosa, Origanum onites, Origanum vulgare, and Teucrium polium were the most commonly used species. A total of 218 medicinal uses (remedies) were recorded. The traditional medicinal plants have been mostly used for the treatment of abdominal and stomach pain (17%), cough and cold (12%), diabetes (6%), kidney ailments (5%), wounds (4%).

CONCLUSION

The use of traditional medicine was still widespread among the people interviewed during this study. Due to the increasing health service facilities in the area, herbal medicine, seemed to be more related to health care and disease prevention than cure.

Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants in Maden (Elazig-Turkey)

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to identify wild plants collected for medical purposes by the local people of Maden County, located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, and to establish the uses and local names of these plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field study was carried out over a period of approximately 2 years (2008-2010). During this period, 131 vascular plant specimens were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, local plant names, utilized parts and preparation methods of the plants were investigated and recorded. In the scope of the study, the plant species were collected; herbarium materials were prepared; and the specimens were entitled. The Zazas are of the major ethnic group in the region. In addition, the relative importance value of the species was determined and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study.

RESULTS

A total of 88 medical plants belonging to 41 families were identified in the region. 4 plants out of 88 were recorded to be used for curative purposes for the first time. It was determined that the local names of four different kinds of plants used in Maden were same as the different kinds of plants used in different regions. The most encountered medicinal plant families were Urticaceae (>21%), Rosaceae and Lamiaceae (>17% of use-reports), Asteraceae (>13%), Fabaceae (>8%), Brassicaceae (>7%), Poaceae (>4%); the most common preparations were decoction and infusion. Mentha spicata L. subsp. spicata, Rosa canina L. and Urtica dioica L. was the plants most used by the local people. Anthemis wiedemanniana Fisch. and Mey., Bunium paucifolium DC. var. brevipes (Freyn & Sint.) Hedge & Lam., Tchihatchewia isatidea Boiss., Thymus haussknechtii Velen. were found to be the endemic plants used for medical purposes in Maden, Turkey. The medicinal uses of Bunium paucifolium DC. var. brevipes (Freyn & Sint.) Hedge & Lam., Hippophae rhamnoides L. subsp. caucasica Roussi, Gladiolus atroviolaceus Boiss., Ixiolirion tataricum (Pallas) Herbert subsp. montanum (Labill.) Takht. were recorded for the first time.

CONCLUSION

Herbal treatment has become a tradition for the residents of the study region. These plants, which are used in the treatment of many diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study from the plants growing in Maden with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies proved most of the ethnobotanical usages. Literature review showed that curative plants of Maden are used in different parts of the world in the treatment of the same or similar diseases. If a plant is used to treat the same disease in different places across the world then its pharmacologic effect could be accepted. It would be beneficial to conduct pharmacologic studies on such plants. These plants, used in the treatment of many different diseases, are in this region at abundant amounts. Drying enabled local people to use medicinal plants during all seasons of the year. This study identified not only the wild plants collected for medical purposes by local people of Maden County in the Eastern Anatolia Region, but also the uses and local names of these plants. It is tried to generate a source for persons studying in ethnobotany, pharmacology and chemistry sciences by comparing knowledge gained from traditionally used herbs with previous laboratory studies.

From the field into the lab: useful approaches to selecting species based on local knowledge

Ethnopharmacological field studies are indispensable for identifying plants that can be selected for their pharmacological effects and chemical composition. Although the subjective interpretation of results by the researcher is crucial, quantitative data analysis is a useful tool to identify the most promising pharmacological plants. It has been stated that such semi-quantitative information increases the likelihood of finding promising ethnopharmacological leads, but so far no critical review has assessed what standards best meet the requirements of biomedical research. Systematic database searches using SCOPUS, Science Direct, Web of Knowledge, Science Citation Index, and Medline with the keywords “ethnobotany,” “ethnopharmacology,” “index,” and “consensus” in research from the last 5 years form the basis of the current analysis, which identifies particularly useful tools like factor of informant consensus, fidelity level, use-value, and relative importance. A key feature for further field studies is that they should provide clear information on a range of topics like; detailed data of the importance of these resources within a culture, data of the uses of the species, how and where the plants are collected, drying and storage processes, preparation method, used doses, and administration. In addition, they must include a collection of records about how the people feel after the plant use, disappearance of specific symptoms and possible side effects.