Medicinal plants used in the management of chronic joint pains in Machakos and Makueni counties, Kenya

Biological activity and characterization of leaf and seed lectins from Terminalia brownii: Insights into their analgesic and antiulcer properties

Terminalia brownii Fresen, an African medicinal plant, is known for its analgesic, antiulcer, and antimicrobial properties, with its leaves, bark, and fruits deeply ingrained in indigenous healing practices. Two lectins, TerBLL (from leaves) and TerBSL (from seeds) of Terminalia brownii Fresen, were purified using salting-out and affinity chromatography on a fetuin-agarose column. The purified lectins were then assessed for protein yield, hemagglutination activity, and physicochemical properties. Both TerBLL and TerBSL have subunits with molecular weights of 57.3 and 65.7 kDa, respectively. TerBLL remains stable at 60-80 °C and is activated by Mn+2, while TerBSL is activated by Zn+2. These lectins maintain consistent activity under acidic conditions, with TerBLL demonstrating heightened activity at extreme alkaline pH. TerBLL retained 50 % of its activity in 2-8M urea, in contrast to the 13 % of TerBSL. Investigation of the properties of TerBLL revealed that it had antinociceptive effects, reducing abdominal pain and prolonging latency time in the hotplate assay, potentially through μ-opioid receptor blockade akin to that of morphine. TerBLL exhibits antiulcer activity at doses of 0.25 and 1 mg/kg, reducing ulcer formation by up to 33 %, comparable to that of pantoprazole (80 mg/kg). The physiochemical attributes of TerBLL, in addition to its pain-relieving and gastroprotective effects, underscore its therapeutic promise, which is consistent with its traditional use.

Acute oral toxicity, cognitive-enhancing and anti-lipid peroxidation efficacy, and qualitative phytochemistry of the aqueous aerial part extract of Launaea cornuta (Hochst. ex. Oliv. &Hiern) C. Jeffrey

At present, there is no cure for dementia or its related cognitive impairments. Available treatments only provide symptomatic relief and do not alter the disease's progression and they suffer serious drawbacks limiting their clinical use, hence the need for alternative therapies. Although Launaea cornuta has been used traditionally to treat cognitive deficits, its pharmacological efficacy and safety have not been empirically validated, prompting this study. Acute oral toxicity of the extract was examined in Swiss albino mice using the up-and-down procedure described by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development guideline number 425. The Morris water maze technique was adopted in assessing cognitive-enhancing effects of the extract in ketamine-induced cognitive-impaired mice. The malondialdehyde concentrations in the whole brain of experimental mice involved in the MWM experiment were measured to determine the extract's anti-lipid peroxidation efficacy. Qualitative phytochemical screening of the extract was performed using standard procedures. Our results showed that the test extract was safe and did not cause any clinical signs of acute oral toxicity in mice at all doses (LD50 > 2000 mg/kg BW). Moreover, the extract significantly improved cognitive function in ketamine-induced cognitive-impaired mice in a dose-dependent manner, as indicated by reduced escape latency, navigation distance, and longer latency in the target quadrant during the probe trial. The extract also significantly reduced malondialdehyde concentrations in mice in a dose-dependent manner, demonstrating its antioxidative stress efficacy. The studied extract contained various phytochemicals associated with cognitive enhancement and antioxidant efficacy, among other pharmacologic effects. Further empirical studies are needed to determine and characterise the extract's specific cognitive-enhancing compounds, specific mechanisms of action, and complete toxicity profiles.

Important Medicinal and Food Taxa (Orders and Families) in Kenya, Based on Three Quantitative Approaches

Globally, food and medicinal plants have been documented, but their use patterns are poorly understood. Useful plants are non-random subsets of flora, prioritizing certain taxa. This study evaluates orders and families prioritized for medicine and food in Kenya, using three statistical models: Regression, Binomial, and Bayesian approaches. An extensive literature search was conducted to gather information on indigenous flora, medicinal and food plants. Regression residuals, obtained using LlNEST linear regression function, were used to quantify if taxa had unexpectedly high number of useful species relative to the overall proportion in the flora. Bayesian analysis, performed using BETA.INV function, was used to obtain superior and inferior 95% probability credible intervals for the whole flora and for all taxa. To test for the significance of individual taxa departure from the expected number, binomial analysis using BINOMDIST function was performed to obtain p-values for all taxa. The three models identified 14 positive outlier medicinal orders, all with significant values (p < 0.05). Fabales had the highest (66.16) regression residuals, while Sapindales had the highest (1.1605) R-value. Thirty-eight positive outlier medicinal families were identified; 34 were significant outliers (p < 0.05). Rutaceae (1.6808) had the highest R-value, while Fabaceae had the highest regression residuals (63.2). Sixteen positive outlier food orders were recovered; 13 were significant outliers (p < 0.05). Gentianales (45.27) had the highest regression residuals, while Sapindales (2.3654) had the highest R-value. Forty-two positive outlier food families were recovered by the three models; 30 were significant outliers (p < 0.05). Anacardiaceae (5.163) had the highest R-value, while Fabaceae had the highest (28.72) regression residuals. This study presents important medicinal and food taxa in Kenya, and adds useful data for global comparisons.

Traditional Importance, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Toxicological Attributes of the Promising Medicinal Herb Carissa spinarum L

Carissa spinarum L. (Apocynaceae), commonly known as Garna or Jungli Karonda, has a rich history of use in indigenous traditional medicinal systems owing to its tremendous medicinal and nutritional benefits. The present review aims to discuss the traditional uses, ethnopharmacology, bioactive composition, toxicity analysis, and biotechnological applications of Carissa spinarum L. (CS) to identify the gap between current applications and research conducted on this plant. We collected the literature published before December 2022 on the phytochemical composition, pharmacological properties, and biotechnological applications of CS. Literature in English from scientific databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Springer, and Wiley, along with books on CS, was analyzed and summarized to prepare this review. The plant taxonomy was verified using the “World Flora Online” database (http://www.worldfloraonline.org/). The in vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies on CS revealed its anthelmintic, anticonvulsant, anti-arthritic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, vasorelaxant, antihypertensive, antitumor, wound-healing, anti-venom, and antipyretic effects. Toxicological studies on CS also indicated the absence of any adverse effects even at high doses after oral administration. Although CS showed remarkable therapeutic activities against several diseases—such as diabetes, cancer, inflammation, and hepatitis B virus—there are several drawbacks in previous reports, including the lack of information on the drug dose, standards, controls, and mechanism of action of the extract or the phytocompounds responsible for its activity. Extensive research with proper in vivo or in vitro model systems is required to validate its reported activities.

Metabolite Profiling and Bioactivities of Leaves, Stems, and Flowers of Rumex usambarensis (Dammer) Dammer, a Traditional African Medicinal Plant

The comprehensive identification of secondary metabolites represents a fundamental step for the assessment of bioactivities and pharmacological properties of traditional herbal drugs. Rumex usambarensis (Dammer) Dammer has been described as a multipurpose remedy in different African traditional pharmacopoeias, but its phytochemical profile has not been properly investigated. Herein we report a high throughput metabolomic screening, based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-travelling wave ion mobility spectrometry quadrupole time-of-flight (UHPLC-TWINS-QTOF), which was performed for the first time on different R. usambarensis plant parts. By applying high-resolution mass spectrometry-based metabolomics and chemometric analysis, a complete discrimination of different aerial parts was obtained, with the annotation of 153 significant metabolites in leaves, stems, and flowers, suggesting an easy authentication and discrimination route. Phytochemical data were correlated to antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Flavonoids, benzopyranes, chromones, and xanthones derivatives, along with a richer phytocomplex, might be responsible for the stronger bioactivities obtained from flowers.

In vitro antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of extracts and chromatographic fractions of twigs from Pappea capensis EckI & Zeyh. (Sapindaceae)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The Vha-Venda people of South Africa use Pappea capensis EckI & Zeyh. (Sapindaceae) twigs to treat malaria and its related symptoms.

AIM OF STUDY

The main aim of this study was to evaluate the antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activity of P. capensis extracts and chromatographic fractions. Spectroscopy analysis was conducted using ¹H NMR and GC-MS to tentatively identify the major classes of compounds and phytoconstituents that can be attributed to the observed antiplasmodial bioactivity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pappea capensis twigs were dried and then ground to fine powder. A solvent mixture of dichloromethane: methanol: water (1:0.5:0.5, v/v) was used to extract. The polar extract was separated from the non-polar. The organic extract was dried to yield a DCM (I = 60 g) extract. The methanol in the aqueous extract was evaporated using a rotary vapour and the remaining water freeze dried to yield a water extract (II = 287 g). Extract I was further partitioned using a solvent mixture of DCM: MeOH (1:1, v/v), separated and concentrated under vacuum to yield dichloromethane (III = 40 g) and methanol (IV = 15 g) extracts. A water-based decoction (V = 10 g) was also prepared to establish the clinical relevance of the preparation administered by Vha-Venda people in South Africa. Extracts II, III and IV were further subjected to silica column chromatography, eluting with a series of different solvents with increasing polarity to yield a total of 25 fractions (A - Y). In vitro antiplasmodial tests on Plasmodium falciparum (NF54) and cytotoxicity screens on mammalian L-6 rat skeletal myoblast cells were performed on all extracts and fractions. Selectivity indices (SI) were also computed for all tested extracts and fractions which were further subjected to ¹H NMR spectroscopy and GC-MS analysis for the identification of the major classes of compounds present in the extracts.

RESULTS

From the assayed extracts, only extract I (IC₅₀ = 2.93 μg/ml; SI = 14), III (IC₅₀ = 2.59 μg/ml; SI = 21) and IV (IC₅₀ = 3.56 μg/ml; SI = 13) demonstrated the best antiplasmodial activity and selectivity. Of all assayed fractions, only N (0.6 μg/ml; SI = 91), D (0.85 μg/ml; SI = 37) and E (0.91 μg/ml; SI = 30) depicted the best antiplasmodial activity and selectivity. The ¹H NMR analysis of the extracts and fractions identified the prominent class of constituents to be aliphatic based which was tentatively identified as terpenoids. When further GC-MS analysis was conducted, the presence of lupin-3-one, lupeol acetate, α-amyrin, and β-amyrin phytoconstituents were tentatively confirmed. These constituents are triterpenoids with established antiplasmodial activity which can be tentatively attributed to the bioactivity observed in P. capensis twigs.

CONCLUSION

The study validates the ethnomedicinal use of P. capensis for malaria treatment. It demonstrated the potential of discovering novel antiplasmodial constituents that could serve as drug hits through dereplication approaches where known compounds with established antimalarial activity can be bypassed to focus on the unknown.

Phytochemical and pharmacological validation of folklore medicine practiced in south-western Satpuda Ranges (India) for management of inflammatory conditions

INTRODUCTION

The ethnobotanical survey of the South-western Satpuda ranges has continued for decades. However, very few disease-specific surveys and their pharmacological validation have been published. The present study aimed to identify, document, and pharmacologically validate the tribal knowledge on anti-inflammatory medicinal plants.

METHODS

The field survey was conducted over a year from July 2015 to June 2016, scattered in the South-Western region of Satpuda Ranges. Documentation and identification of the medicinal herbs used often in the treatment of inflammatory conditions. Two plants, namely Eulophia herbacea Lindl., and Grewia flavescens A. Juss. were commonly used for inflammatory conditions. Phytopharmacological validation was done using carrageenan induced inflammation and CFA-induced arthritis.

RESULTS

The current investigation identified 32 plants from 22 different families as anti-inflammatory plants. G. flavescens exhibited substantial antiarthritic action in complete Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats, and E. herbacea showed powerful anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model. This activity might be attributed to the presence of gallic acid, quercetin, β-sitosterol and lupeol.

CONCLUSION

The research reveals that selected plants had anti-inflammatory properties in both acute and chronic inflammation. Further studies to highlight the exact mechanism of action of these plants are warranted.

Traditional medicinal uses, pharmacology, phytochemistry, and distribution of the Genus Fagaropsis (Rutaceae)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Genus Fagaropsis belonging to the Rutaceae family, is widely distributed in Africa. The various parts of the species in this genus are used in traditional herbal medicine in different parts of the continent for the treatment of malaria, intestinal disorders, cancer, respiratory diseases, and other ailments.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study provides a comprehensive and updated review on the ethnobotanical uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of Fagaropsis species and highlights possible research gaps for further research opportunities, which will be important in the development of new therapeutic drugs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The data was retrieved using ethnobotanical books, published articles, electronic sources, and scientific databases such as Google Scholar, Plants of the World, The Plant List, Scopus, Wiley, Web of Science, PubMed, Science direct, and Sci-Finder. Various key search words Fagaropsis, pharmacological activities, phytochemistry, and ethnobotanical uses were used in the detailed study survey.

RESULTS

Fagaropsis species are used traditionally to treat a wide range of infections such as respiratory diseases, cancer, malaria, intestinal diseases, and ethnoveterinary. Phytochemical investigations indicated 18 phytoconstituents that have been isolated as the main compounds in this genus; triterpenoids (limonoids, norhopane, and norneohopane derivatives), alkaloids, and essential oils. Few in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities have been analyzed in this genus. They indicated that the extracts and pure compounds contained anti-inflammatory, antiplasmodial, anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, and insecticidal activities. The phytochemical compounds that may be responsible for these activities are flavonoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids.

CONCLUSION

The ethnobotanical values, phytochemistry, and pharmacology discussed in this review paper showed that Fagaropsis species contain different compounds possessing a wide range of biological activities, and they have high medicinal value that is significant in treating different types of diseases. Phytochemical analyses have been performed on two species (F. angolensis and F. glabra) in the literature. More scientific research analyses are still required to explore this genus. In addition, the majority of the currently available bioactivity-related analyses were applied to crude extracts. Thus, further research studies are important to reveal the links between ethnobotanical uses and bioactivity in the future.

A Review on the Main Phytoconstituents, Traditional Uses, Inventions, and Patent Literature of Gum Arabic Emphasizing Acacia seyal

Acacia seyal is an important source of gum Arabic. The availability, traditional, medicinal, pharmaceutical, nutritional, and cosmetic applications of gum acacia have pronounced its high economic value and attracted global attention. In addition to summarizing the inventions/patents applications related to gum A. seyal, the present review highlights recent updates regarding its phytoconstituents. Traditional, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and medicinal uses with the possible mechanism of actions have been also reviewed. The patent search revealed the identification of 30 patents/patent applications of A. seyal. The first patent related to A. seyal was published in 1892, which was related to its use in the prophylaxis/treatment of kidney and bladder affections. The use of A. seyal to treat cancer and osteoporosis has also been patented. Some inventions provided compositions and formulations containing A. seyal or its ingredients for pharmaceutical and medical applications. The inventions related to agricultural applications, food industry, cosmetics, quality control of gum Arabic, and isolation of some chemical constituents (L-rhamnose and arabinose) from A. seyal have also been summarized. The identification of only 30 patents/patent applications from 1892 to 15 November 2021 indicates a steadily growing interest and encourages developing more inventions related to A. seyal. The authors recommend exploring these opportunities for the benefit of society.

Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, Acute Oral Toxicity, and Qualitative Phytochemistry of The Aqueous Root Extract of Launaea cornuta (Hochst. Ex Oliv. & Hiern.)

The root and leaf extracts of Launaea cornuta have been locally used in traditional medicine for decades to manage inflammatory conditions and other oxidative-stress-related syndromes; however, their pharmacologic efficacy has not been scientifically investigated and validated. Accordingly, we investigated the in vitro antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory (in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo) efficacy, acute oral toxicity, and qualitative phytochemical composition of the aqueous root extract of L. cornuta. The ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and the 2,2-diphenyl-2-pycrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging test methods were used to determine the studied plant extract’s antioxidant activity. Besides, the anti-inflammatory efficacy of the studied plant extract was investigated using in vitro (anti-proteinase and protein denaturation), ex vivo (membrane stabilization), and in vivo (carrageenan-induced paw oedema in Swiss albino mice) methods. The studied plant extract demonstrated significant in vitro antioxidant effects, which were evidenced by higher DPPH radical scavenging and FRAP activities, in a concentration-dependent manner (p < 0.05). Generally, the studied plant extract exhibited significant in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo anti-inflammatory efficacy, respectively, and in a concentration/dose-dependent manner compared with respective controls (p < 0.05). Moreover, the studied plant extract did not cause any observable signs of acute oral toxicity, even at the cut-off dose of 2000 mg/Kg BW (LD₅₀ > 2000 mg/Kg BW), and was thus considered safe. Additionally, qualitative phytochemistry revealed the presence of various antioxidant- and anti-inflammatory-associated phytochemicals, which were deemed responsible for the reported pharmacologic efficacy. Further studies to characterise bioactive molecules and their mode(s) of pharmacologic efficacy are encouraged.

The anti-nociceptive effects of ethanol extract of aerial parts of Schkuhria pinnata in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The growing challenge to access conventional analgesics, contraindications, and adverse effects could have led individuals to use Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. (Compositae), as an alternative traditional therapeutic strategy for pain. However, evidence of its safety and efficacy is scarce.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study evaluated the anti-nociceptive effect of the ethanol extract of the aerial parts of S. pinnata in mice.

METHODS

The mice were randomly assigned to nine groups: (1) vehicle; (2) acetylsalicylic acid (intraperitoneally 150 mg/kg); (3) pentazocine (intramuscularly 1.0 mg/kg); (4 a & b) orally 100 mg/kg extract; (5 a & b) orally 200 mg/kg extract; (6 a & b) orally 400 mg/kg extract. We used an acetic acid-induced writhing model and a tail-flick test. The number of writhes and time taken for the tail to flick was recorded. A one-way analysis of variance followed by Tamhane T2 post hoc was used for multiple comparisons.

RESULTS

Compared to a vehicle (59.0 ± 2.68), S. pinnata ethanol extract at a dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o reduced writhes to 42.5 ± 1.12 and 27.0 ± 2.62, (p < 0.05) respectively. Similarly, the pain threshold of mice increased dose-dependently; doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg, increased time to 5.33 ± 0.42 and 8.67 ± 0.21 min, (p < 0.05) respectively. The extract had an EC50 of 348.8 mg/kg and acute toxicity established an LD50 of 1224.8 (95% CI: 952.2-1575.3).

CONCLUSION

S. pinnata ethanol extract had anti-nociceptive activity by central and peripheral mechanisms that could justify its traditional use in pain management. Further studies could now focus on identifying active fractions and pure isolated compounds responsible for anti-nociceptive activity.

Phenolic Compounds from Carissa spinarum Are Characterized by Their Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory and Hepatoprotective Activities

Carissa spinarum has been traditionally used for the treatment of various diseases due to its different pharmacological activities. However, the active compounds responsible for its potentially specific activities have rarely been explored. To this end, the ethyl acetate (EA) fraction was screened out and selected for further phytochemical isolation because of its promising activities in preliminary 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and COX-2 inhibition assays. As a result, 10 compounds (1−10), including a new one (5), were isolated, with eight of these being identified as phenolic compounds, as expected. Compound 9 possessed an IC₅₀ value of 16.5 ± 1.2 µM, which was lower than that of positive control (vitamin C, 25.5 ± 0.3 µM) in the DPPH assay, and compounds 2, 6, 7 and 9 showed better total antioxidant capacity than vitamin C in the FRAP assay. Meanwhile, compounds 1−6 and 9 also had IC₅₀ values of less than 1.0 µM, which was even better than the positive control indomethacin in the COX-2 inhibition assay. In this context, compounds 2 and 9 were further evaluated to exhibit clear hepatoprotective activities by improving the L02 cell viability and reducing ROS production using a H₂O₂-induced L02 cell injury model. This study provides initial evidence revealing the most potent phenolic compounds from the root bark of C. spinarum responsible for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective activities.

Antioxidant Activities of Methanol Extracts of Thirteen Cameroonian Antibacterial Dietary Plants

This study falls within the search for alternative solutions to problems related to diseases associated with oxidative stress. It involved the evaluation of antioxidant activities extracts from thirteen antibacterial Cameroonian food plants, namely, P. nigrum, A. cruentus, L. sativa, S. edule, S. nigrum, V. amygdalina, A. hybridus, V. hymenolepis, L. capensis, M. esculenta, C. melo, T. occidentalis, and T. triangulare. The thirteen plant extracts with a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity all showed total reducing powers ranging between 2.41 and 27.81 AAE (mg ascorbic acid equivalents per gram of dried extract) and total phenol contents between 2.65 and 35.03 GAE (mg of gallic acid equivalents per gram of dried extract) of dry extract. Except for extracts of L. capensis, the other 12 extracts showed flavonoid contents ranging between 0.29 and 5.99 RE (rutin equivalents per gram of dried extract). All 13 plant extracts also showed free radical scavenging activity against DPPH· with IC50 ranging between 1.65 and 310.52 μg/ml, while 12 of these extracts exhibited inhibitory activity against NO· radical (IC50 ranging from 19.77 to 157.72 μg/ml). Statistically insignificant positive correlations ( $p>0.5$ ) were found between antibacterial activities of these plants and their antioxidant activities. The different results of this study provide scientific evidence for the use of these antibacterial food plants in the control of different conditions associated with oxidative stress.

Acute Oral Toxicity and Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Effects of Aqueous and Methanolic Stem Bark Extracts of Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.)

Inflammation and pain are devastating conditions characterizing many diseases. Their manifestation ranges from mild body discomfort, to a debilitating experience, which may culminate in organ failure or death. In conventional medicine, corticosteroids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, opioids, and adjuvants are utilized to manage symptoms related to pain and inflammation. Despite their reported successes, these agents are only palliative, debatably inaccessible, unaffordable, and cause many undesirable side effects. As a result, the search for alternative and complementary therapies is warranted. Medicinal plants have been intensively utilized by humans for a long time to treat various ailments. In spite of their reported efficacies, empirical scientific data supporting their healing claims is scanty. P. thonningii (Schumach.) has been used in African traditional medicine, especially by traditional herbalists in Nigeria and Kenya, to treat conditions associated with inflammation. Even though analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and toxicity studies have been performed on leaf extracts, and some of their isolated compounds in Nigeria, there is scanty data supporting the use of stem bark extracts, which are commonly utilized in Kenya for pain, and inflammation management. Moreover, scientific data regarding safety and toxicity of the stem bark extracts of P. thonningii utilized in Kenya by traditional herbalists are inadequate. Based on this background, acute oral toxicity evaluation of the aqueous and methanolic stem bark extracts of P. thonningii, in Swiss albino mice, was performed according to the OECD/OCDE (2008) guidelines. Anti-inflammatory activities were investigated using the xylene-induced ear oedema in mice, whereas analgesic activities were examined following the acetic acid-induced writhing technique. The acute oral toxicity data was analyzed, and interpreted according to the OECDE (2008) guidelines. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities data were tabulated on MS Excel, and exported to GraphPad Prism (v8.3). Descriptive statistics were computed, and expressed as mean ± SEM. Thereafter, One-Way ANOVA followed by Tukey's test was performed. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All the studied plant extracts had LD50 values > 2000 mg/kg bw, and were hence deemed to be nontoxic according to OECD/OCDE document no. 425. The results showed that the acetic acid-induced writhing frequency in mice administered the aqueous stem bark extract of P. thonningii, at a dose of 500 mg/kg bw, was not significantly different from that recorded for mice which received the reference drug (acetylsalicylic acid 75 mg) (p > 0.05). Additionally, at all the studied extract doses, significantly lower acetic acid-induced writhing frequencies were recorded in mice that received the aqueous stem bark extract of P. thonningii, compared with the writhing frequencies in mice that received the methanolic extract of the same plant (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the aqueous stem bark extract of P. thonningii, at doses of 100 mg/kg bw and 500 mg/kg bw, and the methanolic stem bark extract of the same plant, at a dose level of 500 mg/kg bw, exhibited significantly higher percentage inhibitions of xylene-induced oedema than the percentage inhibitions shown by the reference drug (dexamethasone 1 mg/kg bw) (p < 0.05). Generally, the aqueous stem bark extract of P. thonningii, at all the studied dose levels, caused significantly higher inhibitions of xylene-induced ear oedema in mice, compared with the percentage inhibitions shown by methanolic stem bark (p < 0.05). Therefore, the aqueous, and methanolic stem bark extracts of P. thonningii, grown in Kenya, possess peripheral analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities in Swiss albino mice. Hence, they have a potential of offering safe analgesic, and anti-inflammatory compounds. Further studies aimed at isolating, elucidating, and characterizing bioactive components from the studied extracts are recommended. Moreover, specific mode(s) through which these extracts exert the reported bioactivities should be established. Further toxicological investigations involving the studied plant extracts are encouraged to fully establish their safety.

Targeting ESKAPE pathogens with anti-infective medicinal plants from the Greater Mpigi region in Uganda

Antibiotic resistance poses one of the greatest threats to global health today; conventional drug therapies are becoming increasingly inefficacious and limited. We identified 16 medicinal plant species used by traditional healers for the treatment of infectious and inflammatory diseases in the Greater Mpigi region of Uganda. Extracts were evaluated for their ability to inhibit growth of clinical isolates of multidrug-resistant ESKAPE pathogens. Extracts were also screened for quorum quenching activity against S. aureus, including direct protein output assessment (δ-toxin), and cytotoxicity against human keratinocytes (HaCaT). Putative matches of compounds were elucidated via LC–FTMS for the best-performing extracts. These were extracts of Zanthoxylum chalybeum (Staphylococcus aureus: MIC: 16 μg/mL; Enterococcus faecium: MIC: 32 μg/mL) and Harungana madagascariensis (S. aureus: MIC: 32 μg/mL; E. faecium: MIC: 32 μg/mL) stem bark. Extracts of Solanum aculeastrum root bark and Sesamum calycinum subsp. angustifolium leaves exhibited strong quorum sensing inhibition activity against all S. aureus accessory gene regulator (agr) alleles in absence of growth inhibition (IC₅₀ values: 1–64 μg/mL). The study provided scientific evidence for the potential therapeutic efficacy of these medicinal plants in the Greater Mpigi region used for infections and wounds, with 13 out of 16 species tested being validated with in vitro studies.

Ethnobotanical study of selected medicinal plants traditionally used in the rural Greater Mpigi region of Uganda

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study provides the first report on selected traditional medicinal plant use, including parts used and methods of preparation, in the Greater Mpigi region of Uganda. This data supports the conservation of local traditional ecological knowledge and will facilitate future drug discovery research.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Our study aimed to conserve culturally and scientifically-valuable medical knowledge of 16 plant species traditionally used in the Greater Mpigi region in Uganda, namely Albizia coriaria, Cassine buchananii, Combretum molle, Erythrina abyssinica, Ficus saussureana, Harungana madagascariensis, Leucas calostachys, Microgramma lycopodioides, Morella kandtiana, Plectranthus hadiensis, Securidaca longipedunculata, Sesamum calycinum subsp. angustifolium, Solanum aculeastrum, Toddalia asiatica, Warburgia ugandensis and Zanthoxylum chalybeum. An additional objective of the study was an ethnological investigation of the socio-cultural background and medical understanding of diseases treated by traditional healers in the study area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A pilot survey in the study area revealed that 16 plant species were frequently used in treatment of a variety of medical disorders. In order to obtain more complete information, we conducted a broader ethnobotanical survey using structured interviews with 39 traditional healers from 29 villages, specifically asking about the traditional uses of these 16 medicinal species.

RESULTS

Results of the survey confirmed a high level of traditional use of these species in the Greater Mpigi region. In addition, various other traditional uses and methods of preparation were recorded, most of them for the first time. In total, 75 different medical disorders treated with the plants were documented.

CONCLUSIONS

Conservation of traditional knowledge for future generations is vital, as loss has already been recorded due to multiple causes. The need for novel and more effective drugs derived from natural products is more important than ever, making future studies on herbal remedies both justified and urgently required. The traditional healers surveyed in this project also have expectations of the research - they would like to be updated about any resulting studies into the pharmacological efficacy of medicinal plants so that the research findings can inform their confidence in each herbal remedy.

Evaluation of Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities, Cytotoxicity of Acacia seyal Del Bark Extracts and Isolated Compounds

Water extract of Acacia seyal bark is used traditionally by the population in Djibouti for its anti-infectious activity. The evaluation of in vitro antibacterial, antioxidant activities and cytotoxicity as well as chemical characterization of Acacia seyal bark water and methanolic extracts were presented. The water extract has a toxicity against the MRC-5 cells at 256 μg/mL while the methanolic extract has a weak toxicity at the same concentration. The methanolic extract has a strong antioxidant activity with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 150 ± 2.2 μg/mL using 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and IC50 of 27 ± 1.3 μg/mL using 2,2'-azino-bis 3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS) radical methods. For ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) assay, the result is 45.74 ± 5.96 μg Vitamin C Equivalent (VCE)/g of dry weight (DW). The precipitation of tannins from methanol crude extract decreases the MIC from 64 µg/mL to 32 µg/mL against Staphylococcus aureus and Corynebacterium urealyticum. However, the antioxidant activity is higher before tannins precipitation than after (IC50 = 150 µg/mL for methanolic crude extract and 250 µg/mL after tannins precipitation determined by DPPH method). By matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) analysis, the results showed that the condensed tannins consist of two types of catechin and gallocatechin-based oligomers. The fractionation led to the identification of three pure compounds: two flavanols catechin and epicatechin; one triterpene as lupeol; and a mixture of three steroids and one fatty acid: campesterol, stigmasterol, clionasterol, and oleamide.

An Ethnobotanical Survey of a Dryland Botanical Garden and Its Environs in Kenya: The Mutomo Hill Plant Sanctuary

Mutomo hill plant sanctuary is a ten-hectare piece of land in Kenya listed as a botanical garden under the Botanical Gardens Conservation International, originally established in 1964 with the aim of conserving indigenous flora from destructive anthropogenic activities. This paper presents ethnobotanical documentation of medicinal plants of Mutomo hill plant sanctuary and its environs. An ethnobotanical survey was carried out in Mutomo hill plant sanctuary and its environs with 48 herbalists aged between 32 and 96 years from July 2018 to February 2019 using a semistructured open-ended questionnaire. The plants were collected through random surveys with each herbalist in different ecotypes around the villages and within the Mutomo hill plant sanctuary. The Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) for each species reported was calculated to determine the plant species frequently collected. In total, 68 different plant species distributed in 28 families and 54 genera were reported. The frequently used plant families were Leguminosae (13 species), Lamiaceae (6 species), and Euphorbiaceae (6 species). Shrubs (37%) and trees (34%) were the dominant growth habits reported. The most cited plant species were Cassia abbreviata Oliv. (RFC = 0.63), Acacia nilotica (L.). Delile (RFC = 0.54), Strychnos heningsii Gilg (RFC = 0.46), and Aloe secundiflora Engl. (RFC = 0.31). Root (19 species) and bark (19 species) were the frequently collected plant parts. Infectious diseases (33) and digestive system disorders (24) were reported to be managed with the majority of the plant species. This study contributes to safeguarding the traditional knowledge on medicinal plants in the study area, which is useful in appreciating and acknowledging the cultural heritage of the Kamba people from the local perspective of Mutomo area in Kenya. It also adds to the knowledge base and documentation of medicinal plants, which is useful information as potential data for drug development.

Ethnomedicinal survey and mutagenic studies of plants used in Accra metropolis, Ghana

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Majority of people living in Ghana and many other developing countries rely on traditional medicinal plants for their primary healthcare. These plants are used either alone or in combination to manage a wide range of ailments. However, most of these plants have not been investigated for their mutagenic effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study, therefore aimed at evaluating the mutagenic activity of the most frequently used medicinal plants amongst Ghanaians living within the Accra metropolis, Ghana.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Validated questionnaires were administered to 53 herbalists and herbal medicines dealers in the Makola, Madina and Nima communities. Plants that were identified as being frequently used were investigated for their mutagenicity using the Ames test.

RESULTS

A total of 110 medicinal plants belonging to 53 families were identified as most frequently used plants in the study sites. These are used to treat various ailments including gastric ulcer, fever, malaria, male impotence, diabetes, typhoid, high blood pressure and candidiasis. Thirteen samples (52%) showed moderate to high mutagenicity in the TA 100 bacterial strain before and after metabolism with rat liver enzyme.

CONCLUSIONS

The study showed that over half of the frequently used medicinal plants showed moderate to high mutagenicity before and after metabolism at the concentration of a 100 μg/mL. This may have implications for the safety of those who use them to manage diseases. These findings will suggest the need for an in-depth study of the mutagenic potentials of plants commonly used by indigenous people and more especially for those exhibiting high mutagenicity in this study.

Antibacterial interactions, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic effects of four medicinal plant species

Background

The constant emergence of antibiotic resistant species and the adverse side effects of synthetic drugs are threatening the efficacy of the drugs that are currently in use. This study was aimed at investigating the possible antibacterial interactions, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic effects of selected medicinal plants based on their traditional usage.

Methods

The acetone extracts of four plant species were assessed independently and in combination for antibacterial activity using microdilution assay and the sum of the fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) was calculated. The ability of Dombeya rotundifolia and Schkuhria pinnata extracts to inhibit the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in LPS induced RAW 264.7 macrophage cells was evaluated using Dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate (H₂DCF-DA) assay to determine anti-inflammatory potential and the toxicity on African green monkey kidney (Vero) cells was evaluated using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay.

Results

The antibacterial efficacies of the different combinations of Schkuhria pinnata (A), Commelina africana (B), Dombeya rotundifolia (C) and Elephantorrhiza elephantina (D) plants varied from combination to combination. Synergistic effects were only exhibited against P. aeruginosa, while the antagonistic effects were only observed against E. coli. Both S. pinnata and D. rotundifolia demonstrated anti-inflammatory potential by inhibiting the production of ROS in a dose dependant manner. The cytotoxicity of the plants (LC₅₀ values) ranged from < 25.0 to 466.1 μg/mL. S pinnata extract was the most toxic with the lowest LC₅₀ value of < 25.0 μg/mL.

Conclusions

The synergistic interaction observed indicates that combinational therapy may improve biological activity. This report highlights the anti-inflammatory potential of S. pinnata and D. rotundifolia; which could be exploited in the search for anti-inflammatory agents. However, the cytotoxicity of S. pinnata highlights the importance of using this plant with caution.

Antimalarial activity of Cucumis metuliferus and Lippia kituiensis against Plasmodium berghei infection in mice

Background

The search for new antimalarial drugs has become progressively urgent due to plasmodial resistance to most of the commercially available antimalarial drugs. As part of this effort, the study evaluated the antimalarial activity of Cucumis metuliferus and Lippia kituiensis, which are traditionally used in Tanzania for the treatment of malaria.

Materials and methods

In vivo antimalarial activity was assessed using the 4-day suppressive antimalarial assay. Mice were infected by injecting via tail vein 1×10⁷ erythrocytes infected by Plasmodium berghei ANKA. Extracts were administered orally; chloroquine (10 mg/kg/day) and dimethyl sulfoxide (5 mL/kg/day) were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. The level of parasitemia, survival time, packed cell volume (PCV) and variation in body weight of mice were used to determine the antimalarial activity of the extract.

Results

The ethyl acetate, methanolic and chloroform extracts of C. metuliferus and L. kituiensis significantly (p<0.05) inhibited parasitemia in a dose-dependent manner and prevented loss of body weight at the dose levels of 600 mg/kg and 1500 mg/kg, respectively. In addition, the extracts prolonged the mean survival time of P. berghei-infected mice compared to the non-treated control. The plant extracts did not show reduction of PCV except at the low dose of 300 mg/kg. The highest suppression was recorded at the dose level of 1,500 mg/kg. At this dose, C. metuliferus in chloroform, methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts had percentage suppression of 98.55%, 88.89% and 84.39%, respectively, whereas L. kituiensis in ethyl acetate, chloroform and methanolic extracts exhibited suppression of the pathogens of 95.19%, 93.88% and 74.83%, respectively.

Conclusion

It is worth reporting that the two plants induced suppression which is equivalent to that induced by chloroquine (C. metuliferus chloroform and L. Kituiensis ethyl acetate). The two plants have been demonstrated to be potential sources of antimalarial templates.

A review of the traditional and modern uses of Salvadora persica L. (Miswak): Toothbrush tree of Prophet Muhammad

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Salvadora persica L., also known as Arak (in Arabic) and Peelu (in Urdu), is the most common traditional source of tooth or chewing stick (miswak) highly recommended by Prophet Muhammad. To date, extensive studies have probed primarily into the validation of its traditional uses in oral care. Nonetheless, there is still a dearth of updated compilation and critical analysis of other potential ethnopharmacological properties of S. persica. This review therefore aims to provide an up-to-date detailed structured description of the traditional uses of S. persica and a critical analysis of its modern uses, highlighting its phytochemistry, pharmacological properties, and bioapplications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Various databases (Science Direct, PubMed, Wiley Online Library, and Google Scholar), books, and relevant primary sources were probed, surveyed, analysed, and included in this review. The literature cited in this review dated from 1979 to 2017.

RESULTS

S. persica was found to possess a plethora of bioactive compounds and broad pharmacological properties, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, enzyme inhibitory activity, antiulcer, anticonvulsant, sedative, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, antiosteoporosis, and antitumor activities. Studies also revealed the potential use of S. persica as a natural food preservative and a novel functional food ingredient. In addition, improvement in growth and reproductive performances have been observed by the introduction of S. persica in animal feed. Lastly, S. persica has also been used in the green synthesis of nanoparticles showing potential biotechnological applications.

CONCLUSION

S. persica showed a wide scope of application and its uses have been extended far beyond the initial traditional uses of its roots, stems, and twigs in oral care. We found a number of other ethnopharmacological uses and potential bioapplications of different parts of S. persica that warrants further investigations. Though widely studied using several in vitro and in vivo models, and tested clinically for oral hygiene mainly, several gaps and research priorities have been identified which needs to be addressed in future.

The Genus Carissa: An Ethnopharmacological, Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review

Carissa L. is a genus of the family Apocynaceae, with about 36 species as evergreen shrubs or small trees native to tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia and Oceania. Most of Carissa plants have been employed and utilized in traditional medicine for various ailments, such as headache, chest complains, rheumatism, oedema, gonorrhoea, syphilis, rabies. So far, only nine Carissa species have been phytochemically studied, which led to the identification of 123 compounds including terpenes, flavonoids, lignans, sterols, simple phenolic compounds, fatty acids and esters, and so on. Pharmacological studies on Carissa species have also indicated various bioactive potentials. This review covers the peer-reviewed articles between 1954 and 2016, retrieved from Pubmed, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Wikipedia and Baidu, using "Carissa" as search term ("all fields") and with no specific time frame set for search. Fifteen important medicinal or ornamental Carissa species were selected and summarized on their botanical characteristics, geographical distribution, traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities.

Knowledge and demand for medicinal plants used in the treatment and management of diabetes in Nyeri County, Kenya

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Non communicable diseases are currently a major health challenge facing humanity. Nyeri County has one of the highest diabetes prevalence in Kenya (12.6%), compared to the country's prevalence of 5.6%. The purpose of the study was to document; diabetes knowledge, medicinal plants and demand for the services of traditional medicine practitioners, in the management and treatment of diabetes.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was carried out in the six constituencies in Nyeri, using pre-tested semi-structured questionnaires. Thirty practicing traditional medicine practitioners were purposively selected for the study. Field observation and identification was carried out on all plants that were cited during the interview. Plant samples were collected and voucher specimen deposited in the University of Nairobi Herbarium in the - School of Biological Sciences.

RESULTS

The study revealed 30 plant species in 28 genera and 23 families that are used by the traditional medicine practitioners to treat and manage diabetes. Demand for traditional medicine practitioners' services in the treatment of diabetes is low and often occurs when conventional drugs fail.

CONCLUSION

Interaction with the TMPs unveiled significant diversity of potential anti diabetic medicinal plants and in-depth ethnobotanical knowledge that they possessed. Preference for traditional herbal medicine was low despite wide ethnobotanical knowledge in the face of high prevalence of diabetes in the locality. The findings form the basis of pharmacological studies for standardization of the documented ethnomedicine used in the treatment and management of diabetes in the study area.

Cytotoxicity of 91 Kenyan indigenous medicinal plants towards human CCRF-CEM leukemia cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Plants from Kenyan flora are traditionally used against many ailments, including cancer and related diseases. Cancer is characterized as a condition with complex signs and symptoms. Recently there are recommendations that ethnopharmacological usages such as immune and skin disorders, inflammatory, infectious, parasitic and viral diseases should be taken into account when selecting plants that treat cancer.

AIM

The present study was aimed at investigating the cytotoxicity of a plethora of 145 plant parts from 91 medicinal plants, most of which are used in the management of cancer and related diseases by different communities in Kenya, against CCRF-CEM leukemia cell line.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Extracts from different plant parts (leaves, stems, stem bark, roots, root barks, aerial parts and whole herb) were obtained by cold percolation using different solvent systems, such as (1:1v/v) dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) and n-hexane (1), methanol (MeOH) and CH2Cl2 (2); neat MeOH (3), 5% H2O in MeOH (4) and with ethanol (EtOH, 5); their cytotoxicities were determined using the resazurin reduction assay against CCRF-CEM cells.

RESULTS

At a single concentration of 10μg/mL, 12 out of 145 extracts exhibited more than 50% cell inhibition. These include samples from the root bark of Erythrina sacleuxii (extracted with 50% n-hexane-CH2Cl2), the leaves of Albizia gummifera, and Strychnos usambarensis, the stem bark of Zanthoxylum gilletii, Bridelia micrantha, Croton sylvaticus, and Albizia schimperiana; the root bark of Erythrina burttii and E. sacleuxii (extracted with 50% CH2Cl2-MeOH), the stem bark of B. micrantha and Z. gilletii (extracted using 5% MeOH-H2O) and from the berries of Solanum aculeastrum (extracted with neat EtOH). The EtOH extract of the berries of S. aculeastrum and A. schimperiana stem bark extract displayed the highest cytotoxicity towards leukemia CCRF-CEM cells, with IC50 values of 1.36 and 2.97µg/mL, respectively. Other extracts having good activities included the extracts of the stem barks of Z. gilletii and B. micrantha and leaves of S. usambarensis with IC50 values of 9.04, 9.43 and 11.09µg/mL, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study provided information related to the possible use of some Kenyam medicinal plants, and mostly S. aculeastrum, A. schimperiana, C. sylvaticus, Z. gilletii, B. micrantha and S. usambarensis in the treatment of leukemia. The reported data helped to authenticate the claimed traditional use of these plants. However, most plants are used in combination as traditional herbal concoctions. Hence, the cytotoxicity of corresponding plant combinations should be tested in vitro to authenticate the traditional medical practitioners actual practices.

Evaluation of the use of Ocimum suave Willd. (Lamiaceae), Plectranthus barbatus Andrews (Lamiaceae) and Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. (Rutaceae) as antimalarial remedies in Kenyan folk medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Crude extracts from the leaves of Ocimum suave Willd (Lamiaceae) and the root barks of Plectranthus barbatus Andrews (Lamiaceae) and Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. (Rutaceae) were studied to ascertain the ethnopharmacological standing of their antimalarial usage in Kenyan folk medicine.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aqueous and Chloroform: Methanol (1:1) extracts of the plants were used in this study. Toxicity of the extracts was investigated by using brine shrimp lethality test and acute oral toxicity in mice. The antimalarial activity at a dose of 100 mg/kg was screened in Swiss albino mice against chloroquine sensitive Plasmodium berghei (D6) using Peters 4-day suppressive test. Chloroquine, at a dosage rate of 20 mg/kg was used as a reference drug.

RESULTS

The extracts showed some signs of acute toxicity in the brine shrimp lethality test. However, no signs of toxicity were observed in the mice at a dose of 2000 mg/kg of the crude extracts. The results revealed that all the tested crude extracts were safe. Z. chalybeum aqueous extract and P. barbatus organic extract showed chemosuppressive activities of 81.45% and 78.69%, respectively. This antimalarial activity was not significantly different from that of chloroquine (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that the Kenyan folkloric medicinal application of these plants has a pharmacological basis. Bioactivity guided fractionation and isolation of bioactive molecules from the two species could lead to new hits against Plasmodium falciparum malaria.

Ethnobotanical survey of food and medicinal plants of the Ilkisonko Maasai community in Kenya

AIM OF THE STUDY

Pastoralist communities such as the Maasai are heavily reliant on traditional foods and medicines. This survey sought to identify traditional foods and/or medicinal plants of the Ilkisonko Maasai community living in Kenya.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnobotanical knowledge of traditional plants used as food and human/veterinary medicine was obtained using structured and semi-structured questionnaires administered through face to face interviews of key informants.

RESULTS

A total of 30 species from 21 families and 25 genera were reportedly used as food and/or medicine by 48 respondents. The most commonly encountered genus was the Fabaceae. The growth forms encountered were tree (47%), shrub (33%) and herb (20%). Plants that were commonly mentioned by respondents were Salvadora persica (85%), Grewia villosa (52%), Ximenia americana (52%), Albizia anthelmintica (50%), Acacia robusta (46%) and Acacia nilotica (42%). The root/root bark was the most commonly used plant part (35%), followed by the stem/stem bark (30%), fruit (15%), leaves (11%) and whole plant (9%). Common ailments treated were stomach aches, constipation, back aches, joint aches, body pains and sexually transmitted infections. The plants were also used as tonics, digestives, and restoratives.

CONCLUSION

It was evident that traditional medicine was the preferred health care system for the Ilkisonko Maasai community. It is important to document and use this knowledge in producing novel products that could improve nutrition and healthcare in rural communities.

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in the Maseru district of Lesotho

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ethnobotanical knowledge in Lesotho is passed on orally from one generation to another. As a result it has not been well documented. Existing publications have relied on previous literature and are limited either in terms of scope or coverage. Furthermore, some of them are out of print. Therefore, there are gaps in the documentation of medicinal plants used in Lesotho.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the current study is to investigate common ailments in Lesotho's traditional medicine and document plants that are used in treating such ailments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Interviews were conducted in five urban and four rural areas of the capital town of Maseru, by means of questionnaires to elicit information on medicinal plant use to cure common ailments. The informants were 20 males and seven females comprising 15 traditional healers, 11 herbalists and one pharmacist.

RESULTS

Reproductive ailments were found to be the most commonly treated, followed by respiratory, degenerative and digestive problems. A list of the 80 plants used for treating the common ailments is given. A total of 44 families is represented, with Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Asphodelaceae and Poaceae families having the highest number of species used for medicinal purposes. The most frequently mentioned medicinal plants in interviews include; Elephantorrhiza elephantina, Pentanisia prunelloides, Hypoxis hermerocallidea, Eriocephalus sp., Salvia runcinata, Scabiosa columbaria, Dicoma anomala, Morella serrata, Xysmalobium undulatum, and Leobordea lanceolata. Due to the high demand of medicinal plants, some species such as L. lanceolata, Tephrosia capensis, E. elephantina, D. anomala and P. prunelloides were reported as over-harvested. In some cases animal products are added to the medicinal plants to enhance their curative abilities.

CONCLUSIONS

A total of 80 plants were recorded in the study as treating 38 common ailments in the Maseru district of Lesotho. Records of eight medicinal plants and 146 new medicinal uses of 34 plants that were not recorded elsewhere in literature are reported in the current study for the first time. The new records of medicinal plants used in traditional healing practices in Lesotho clearly show the need to document these practices, and the wealth of new knowledge gained with the current study reinforces the importance of extending the study to other parts of Lesotho.

The traditional use of plants to manage candidiasis and related infections in Venda, South Africa

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This paper presents results of an ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used for the management of candidiasis and related fungal infections in the Venda area, South Africa.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnobotanical data about the uses of plants were gathered from eleven rural traditional healers using semi-structured interviews.

RESULTS

A total of 45 species belonging to 24 different families were identified, of which the dominant family was the Fabaceae with 13 species (28.9%) followed by the Asteraceae and Solanaceae with 3 species each (6.7 %). A total of 28 of these plant species (62.2%) have been shown to have anticandidal activity and 14 species (31%) have been recorded for antifungal uses in the literature. Amongst the 45 species recorded, 51% were trees, 33% were shrubs, and 16% were herbs. The most widely used plant species were Acacia caffra, Clerodendrum glabrum, Croton gratissimus, Elaeodendron transvaalense, Faurea saligna, Hippocratea longipetiolata, Osyris lanceolata, Richardia brasiliensis, Schkuhria pinnata, Schotia brachypetala, Spilanthes acmella, Strychnos potatorum, Vangueria infausta subsp. infausta and Withania somnifera. The plant parts mostly used in the therapeutic preparations were roots (27.7%), bark (23.2%), and a combination of roots, bark (18.7%) and leaves (14.3%). Decoctions (44.4%), infusions (20%), macerations (17.7%), burning (11.4%) and paste (6.5%) were used. Most of the herbal remedies were administered orally. The main factors threatening the conservation status of these plants are unsustainable methods of harvesting, logging for firewood, building materials and crafts.

CONCLUSION

The Venda area is rich in plant diversity and local indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants can play an important role as a model for low cost primary health care. Further studies are in progress to validate the indigenous plants recorded as traditional remedies in this area.

Randomized clinical trial of peganum oil for knee osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis affects about 50% of people aged older than 65 years. Pain is the most important symptom in this disease. Today public interest in the use of complementary medicine, especially traditional herbal medicines has increased. The present study was designed to investigate the efficacy of traditional preparation of Peganum harmala L oil on patients with knee osteoarthritis. The product has been analyzed and standardized by high-performance liquid chromatography. A double blind controlled randomized clinical trial consisting of 54 patients were performed. Patients rubbed the drug or control (olive oil) on the knee 4 drops 3 times a day for 4 weeks. The patients were asked to fill out the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Arthritis Index and Visual Analogue Scale questionnaires at week 0 and 4. The adapted results from the questionnaires showed that pain and difficulty in function were significantly decreased in Peganum oil group after 4 weeks. There was no significant difference in stiffness change between 2 groups.

Ethnopharmacological Survey of Plants Used in the Traditional Treatment of Gastrointestinal Pain, Inflammation and Diarrhea in Africa: Future Perspectives for Integration into Modern Medicine

There is a growing need to find the most appropriate and effective treatment options for a variety of painful syndromes, including conditions affecting the gastrointestinal tract, for treating both veterinary and human patients. The most successful regimen may come through integrated therapies including combining current and novel western drugs with acupuncture and botanical therapies or their derivatives. There is an extensive history and use of plants in African traditional medicine. In this review, we have highlighted botanical remedies used for treatment of pain, diarrheas and inflammation in traditional veterinary and human health care in Africa. These preparations are promising sources of new compounds comprised of flavonoids, bioflavanones, xanthones, terpenoids, sterols and glycosides as well as compound formulas and supplements for future use in multimodal treatment approaches to chronic pain, gastrointestinal disorders and inflammation. The advancement of plant therapies and their derivative compounds will require the identification and validation of compounds having specific anti-nociceptive neuromodulatory and/or anti-inflammatory effects. In particular, there is need for the identification of the presence of compounds that affect purinergic, GABA, glutamate, TRP, opioid and cannabinoid receptors, serotonergic and chloride channel systems through bioactivity-guided, high-throughput screening and biotesting. This will create new frontiers for obtaining novel compounds and herbal supplements to relieve pain and gastrointestinal disorders, and suppress inflammation.

Antibacterial activities of the methanol extracts of ten Cameroonian vegetables against Gram-negative multidrug-resistant bacteria

BACKGROUND

Many edible plants are used in Cameroon since ancient time to control microbial infections. This study was designed at evaluating the antibacterial activities of the methanol extracts of ten Cameroonian vegetables against a panel of twenty nine Gram negative bacteria including multi-drug resistant (MDR) strains.

METHODS

The broth microdilution method was used to determine the Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations (MIC) and the Minimal Bactericidal Concentrations (MBC) of the studied extracts. When chloramphenicol was used as a reference antibiotic, the MICs were also determined in the presence of Phenylalanine-Arginine β-Naphtylamide (PAβN), an efflux pumps inhibitor (EPI). The phytochemical screening of the extracts was performed using standard methods.

RESULTS

All tested extracts exhibited antibacterial activities, with the MIC values varying from 128 to 1024 mg/L. The studied extracts showed large spectra of action, those from L. sativa, S. edule, C. pepo and S. nigrum being active on all the 29 bacterial strains tested meanwhile those from Amaranthus hybridus, Vernonia hymenolepsis, Lactuca.carpensis and Manihot esculenta were active on 96.55% of the strains used. The plant extracts were assessed for the presence of large classes of secondary metabolites: alkaloids, anthocyanins, anthraquinones, flavonoids, phenols, saponins, steroids, tannins and triterpenes. Each studied plant extract was found to contain compounds belonging to at least two of the above mentioned classes.

CONCLUSION

These results confirm the traditional claims and provide promising baseline information for the potential use of the tested vegetables in the fight against bacterial infections involving MDR phenotypes.

Ethnobotanical survey of biopesticides and other medicinal plants traditionally used in Meru central district of Kenya

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The purpose of this study was to carry out a survey and document plants used in Meru-central district by traditional healers with emphasis on those used as biopesticides.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was carried out at Igane and Gatuune sub-locations, Abothuguchi East division of Meru-Central district, Kenya. The data collection involving 23 traditional healers was done using semi-structured questionnaire, focused group discussion and transect walks. Plants samples were collected and botanically identified at the herbarium of the Department of Land Resource Management and Agriculture Technology in the University of Nairobi.

RESULTS

The results of the ethnobotanical survey revealed that herbalists belonged to both gender with the majority being male (82.6%) and female (17.4%). Their ages ranged from 28 to 82 years. Seventy (70) plant species, belonging to 35 families, were identified as being used as biopesticides and also as medicinal. The families encountered were Asteraceae (10%), Euphorbiaceae (8.6%), Lamiaceae (8.6%), Fabaceae(8.6%), Caesalpiniaceae (5.7%), Rubiaceae (5.7%), Liliaceae (4.3%), Apocynaceae (2.9%), Flacourtiaceae (2.9%), Verbenaceae (2.9%) and the rest of the 24 families had 1.4% each. These medicinal plants were used to treat and manage a wide range of diseases and conditions including parasitic, microbial, helminthosis, protozoa, cuts and wounds, fractures, dental, arthritis, allergic, snake bites, reproductive as well as metabolic. Among the plants used, shrubs were the commonest at 42.8%; trees were 32.9%, while herbs and liana were at 22.9% and 1.4%, respectively. Majority of the respondents used leaves, roots and bark to make their herbal preparations with only a few using seeds, flowers, whole plant, flower sap and pods. The plants that were cited by the respondents to be used as biopesticides were Prectranthus barbatus Andr. (47.8%), Tephrosia vogelii Hookf. (39.1%), Ocimum gratissimum L (34.7%), Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. (8.7%), Cascabella thevetia(L.)Lippold (4.3%) and Oncoba routledgei Sprague (4.3%).

CONCLUSION

Meru central district is rich in biodiversity of biopesticides and other medicinal plants and there is need for further pharmacological studies to validate their use as potential drugs for pests and disease control.

Tribal formulations for treatment of pain: a study of the Bede community traditional medicinal practitioners of Porabari Village in Dhaka District, Bangladesh

The Bedes form one of the largest tribal or indigenous communities in Bangladesh and are popularly known as the boat people or water gypsies because of their preference for living in boats. They travel almost throughout the whole year by boats on the numerous waterways of Bangladesh and earn their livelihood by selling sundry items, performing jugglery acts, catching snakes, and treating village people by the various riversides with their traditional medicinal formulations. Life is hard for the community, and both men and women toil day long. As a result of their strenuous lifestyle, they suffer from various types of pain, and have developed an assortment of formulations for treatment of pain in different parts of the body. Pain is the most common reason for physician consultation in all parts of the world including Bangladesh. Although a number of drugs are available to treat pain, including non-steroidal, steroidal, and narcotic drugs, such drugs usually have side-effects like causing bleeding in the stomach over prolonged use (as in the case of rheumatic pain), or can be addictive. Moreover, pain arising from causes like rheumatism has no proper treatment in allopathic medicine. It was the objective of the present study to document the formulations used by the Bede traditional practitioners for pain treatment, for they claim to have used these formulations over centuries with success. Surveys were conducted among a large Bede community, who reside in boats on the Bangshi River by Porabari village of Savar area in Dhaka district of Bangladesh. Interviews of 30 traditional practitioners were conducted with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire and the guided field-walk method. It was observed that the Bede practitioners used 53 formulations for treatment of various types of pain, the main ingredient of all formulations being medicinal plants. Out of the 53 formulations, 25 were for treatment of rheumatic pain, either exclusively, or along with other types of body pain. A total of 65 plants belonging to 39 families were used in the formulations. The Fabaceae family provided 7 plants followed by the Solanaceae family with 4 plants. 47 out of the 53 formulations were used topically, 5 formulations were orally administered, and 1 formulation had both topical and oral uses. 8 formulations for treatment of rheumatic pain contained Calotropis gigantea, suggesting that the plant has strong potential for further scientific studies leading to discovery of novel efficacious compounds for rheumatic pain treatment.