Total flavonoids of Flos Chrysanthemi protect arterial endothelial cells against oxidative stress

Evaluation of Whitening Effects and Identification of Potentially Active Compounds Based on Untargeted Metabolomic Analysis in Different Chrysanthemum Cultivar Extracts

Chrysanthemum is a traditional Chinese medicinal herb. Chrysanthemum extracts are rich in bioactive compounds; however, there are few reports evaluating the whitening effects of organic chrysanthemum extracts. This study assessed the antioxidant and whitening effects of organic extracts from the petals of five chrysanthemum cultivars from Guangdong, China. Significant differences were observed among the five cultivars across various parameters, including IC50 values for tyrosinase inhibition activity, DPPH and ABTS values, UV absorption, and SPF values. Additionally, there were notable variations in total flavonoid, total phenolic, and chlorogenic acid contents. The BJ cultivar extract exhibited strong antioxidant capacity and superior whitening effects, containing the highest levels of total flavonoids, total phenolics, and chlorogenic acid. Correlation analysis indicated a significant relationship between total flavonoid content and IC50 of DPPH, and between chlorogenic acid and both IC50 of ABTS and SPF. Untargeted metabolomic analysis of three representative cultivars (BJ, WYHJ, and JSHJ) identified 22 compounds potentially related to antioxidant and whitening effects. Compounds significantly correlated with multiple antioxidant or whitening indicators (p < 0.05, r > 0.8) included tangeritin, hydroquinone, eupatilin, quercetin 3-(6″-malonyl-glucoside), biochanin A, and cyanidin 3-glucoside. These compounds may play crucial roles in the antioxidant and whitening effects of chrysanthemum extracts. The results highlight the promising antioxidant and whitening properties of chrysanthemum extracts, with certain genotypes, such as BJ, showing potential as superior raw material sources.

The Influence of Planting Sites on the Chemical Compositions of Chrysanthemum morifolium Flowers (Chuju) as Revealed by Py-GC/MS Combined with Multivariate Statistical Analysis

Chuju, a cultivar of Chrysanthemum morifolium, has been traditionally cultivated for over 2000 years in China for both ornamental and medicinal purposes. To date, investigations into the chemical composition of this plant have indicated that it contains compounds with extensive biological activities, although detailed information on the chemical composition of Chuju remains scarce. In the present study, the chemical compositions of Chuju flowers were investigated across five sites in the core Chuju planting area in Anhui province, China. Analytical pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) was used to explore variations in flower chemical fingerprints from different Chuju planting sites. The study identified approximately 200 components in Chuju flowers and stems, including high levels of fatty acids, lipids, polysaccharides and terpenoids. Multivariate statistical analysis indicated that 16 chemical compounds were influential determinants of the chemical fingerprint and could be used to distinguish two clusters in the five core planting areas. The established Py-GC/MS analytical workflow could provide a basis for determining the chemical fingerprints of Chuju and help elucidate that products contain a reproducible content of bioactive compounds and overall quality for potential development of health and medicinal purposes.

Effect of Extraction Methods on Chemical Characteristics and Bioactivity of Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Fubaiju Extracts

Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Fubaiju (CMF) is regarded as one of the three most renowned varieties of white Chrysanthemum in China, and different extraction methods have significant effects on its composition and activities. Therefore, six extractions were used in this study to assess the effects on extracts. The basic chemical composition showed that hot water extract (Hw) had the highest total phenolic content, alkali water immersion-assisted hot water extract (Al) had the highest content of protein, and enzyme-assisted hot water extract (Enz) had the highest content of carbohydrate. The UPLC-Q-Exactive-MS results evinced the presence of 19 small-molecule compounds, including chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, tuberonic acid glucoside, luteolin-7-O-rutinoside, and other substances. In addition, the antioxidant test found that the Hw exhibited the best 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) (82.05 ± 1.59 mM TE/mg) and 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) (61.91 ± 0.27 mM TE/mg) scavenging ability. The anti-glycation test demonstrated that Enz possessed the most pronounced inhibitory effect on glycation products, including fructosamine and advanced glycation end products (AGEs). Additionally, the Enz also exhibited the most significant inhibitory effect on the protein oxidation product N'-formylkynurenine. The correlation analysis revealed that there was a close relationship between antioxidant properties and glycation resistance of extracts, and tuberonic acid glucoside, 1,3-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, 1,4-Dicaffeoylquinic acid, quercetin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, and isochlorogenic acid B were key small molecule components that affected activities. In summary, the extracts of CMF can be regarded as an excellent antioxidant and anti-glycosylation agent.

Hydrogen Protection Boosts the Bioactivity of Chrysanthemum morifolium Extract in Preventing Palmitate-Induced Endothelial Dysfunction by Restoring MFN2 and Alleviating Oxidative Stress in HAEC Cells

As the most important natural antioxidants in plant extracts, polyphenols demonstrate versatile bioactivities and are susceptible to oxidation. The commonly used ultrasonic extraction often causes oxidation reactions involving the formation of free radicals. To minimize the oxidation effects during the ultrasonic extraction process, we designed a hydrogen (H₂)-protected ultrasonic extraction method and used it in Chrysanthemum morifolium extraction. Hydrogen-protected extraction improved the total antioxidant capacity, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, and polyphenol content of Chrysanthemum morifolium water extract (CME) compared with air and nitrogen (N₂) conditions. We further investigated the protective effects and mechanisms of CME on palmitate (PA)-induced endothelial dysfunction in human aorta endothelial cells (HAECs). We found that hydrogen-protected CME (H₂-CME) best-prevented impairment in nitric oxide (NO) production, endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) protein level, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. In addition, H₂-CME prevented PA-induced endothelial dysfunction by restoring mitofusin-2 (MFN2) levels and maintaining redox balance.

Study on the chemical profile of chrysanthemum and the evaluation of the similarities and differences between different cultivars

Chrysanthemum originates in China and has been cultivated for tea and food utilizations over 2 thousand years. According to differences in origin and processing methods, Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. can be categorized into many cultivars. This study aims to investigate the chemical components of chrysanthemum and clarify the similarities and differences between different chrysanthemum varieties. A total of 55 non-volatile components and 66 volatile components in chrysanthemum were identified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) methods, respectively. A rapid UPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of 13 active components in 30 batches chrysanthemum samples of ten different cultivars. Multivariate statistical techniques were applied to analyze the samples. The result indicated that Boju, Huaiju and Chuju were more similar in terms of the ingredient content and Qiju, Jinsihuangju, Huangju, Hangju, Gongju, Fubaiju, Baiju have a high degree of similarity. Furthermore, isochlorogenic acid C, luteolin, apigenin-7-glucoside, chlorogenic acid, apigenin and cryptochlorogenic acid plays an important role in distinguishing different varieties of chrysanthemum. The established strategy explains the similarities and differences between different varieties of chrysanthemums to some extent, and provides certain reference value for the choice of chrysanthemums for eating or medicinal purposes in daily life.

Triiron Tetrairon Phosphate (Fe7(PO4)6) Nanomaterials Enhanced Flavonoid Accumulation in Tomato Fruits

Flavonoids contribute to fruit sensorial and nutritional quality. They are also highly beneficial for human health and can effectively prevent several chronic diseases. There is increasing interest in developing alternative food sources rich in flavonoids, and nano-enabled agriculture provides the prospect for solving this action. In this study, triiron tetrairon phosphate (Fe₇(PO₄)₆) nanomaterials (NMs) were synthesized and amended in soils to enhance flavonoids accumulation in tomato fruits. 50 mg kg⁻¹ of Fe₇(PO₄)₆ NMs was the optimal dose based on its outstanding performance on promoting tomato fruit flavonoids accumulation. After entering tomato roots, Fe₇(PO₄)₆ NMs promoted auxin (IAA) level by 70.75 and 164.21% over Fe-EDTA and control, and then up-regulated the expression of genes related to PM H⁺ ATPase, leading to root proton ef-flux at 5.87 pmol cm⁻² s⁻¹ and rhizosphere acidification. More Mg, Fe, and Mn were thus taken up into plants. Subsequently, photosynthate was synthesized, and transported into fruits more rapidly to increase flavonoid synthesis potential. The metabolomic and transcriptomic profile in fruits further revealed that Fe₇(PO₄)₆ NMs regulated sucrose metabolism, shi-kimic acid pathway, phenylalanine synthesis, and finally enhanced flavonoid biosynthesis. This study implies the potential of NMs to improve fruit quality by enhancing flavonoids synthesis and accumulation.

Comparative metabolomics analysis revealed biomarkers and distinct flavonoid biosynthesis regulation in Chrysanthemum mongolicum and C. rhombifolium

INTRODUCTION

Chrysanthemums are traditional flowers that originated in China and have high ornamental, economic and medicinal value. They are widely used as herbal remedies and consumed as food or beverages in folk medicine. However, little is known about their metabolic composition.

OBJECTIVES

The aims of this work were to determine the metabolic composition of and natural variation among different species of Chrysanthemum and to explore new potential resources for drug discovery and sustainable utilisation of wild Chrysanthemum.

METHODS

The metabolomes of Chrysanthemum mongolicum (Ling) Tzvel. and Chrysanthemum rhombifolium H. Ohashi & Yonek. were compared using a widely targeted metabolomics approach based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

RESULTS

In total, 477 metabolites were identified, of which 72 showed significant differences in expression between C. mongolicum and C. rhombifolium, mainly in flavonoids, organic acids and nucleotides. The flavone and flavonol biosynthesis pathway showed significant enrichment among the differentially expressed metabolites. The contents of genkwanin, trigonelline, diosmin, narcissoside, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, linarin, N',N'-p-coumarin, C-hexosyl-tricetin O-pentoside, chrysoeriol, acacetin and kaempferol-3-O-gentiobioside were significantly different between the two species and represent potential biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

The types of flavonoid-related metabolites in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway differed between C. mongolicum and C. rhombifolium. The mechanisms underlying the unique adaptations of these two species to their environments may involve variations in the composition and abundance of flavonoids, organic acids, and nucleotides. These methods are promising to identify functional compounds in Chrysanthemum species and can provide potential resources for drug discovery and the sustainable utilisation of Chrysanthemum plants.

Characteristic Volatile Fingerprints of Four Chrysanthemum Teas Determined by HS-GC-IMS

Volatile composition is an important feature that determines flavor, which actively affects the overall evaluation of chrysanthemum tea. In this study, HS-GC-IMS (headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry) was performed to characterize the volatile profiles of different chrysanthemum tea subtypes. Forty-seven volatiles of diverse chemical nature were identified and quantified. Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) revealed that four chrysanthemum teas were distinct from each other based on their volatile compounds. Furthermore, this work provides reference methods for detecting novel volatile organic compounds in chrysanthemum tea plants and products.

Buddleoside-Rich Chrysanthemum indicum L. Extract has a Beneficial Effect on Metabolic Hypertensive Rats by Inhibiting the Enteric-Origin LPS/TLR4 Pathway

As the number of patients with metabolic hypertension (MH) is increasing, there is an essential require for global measures to prevent and treat MH. Flavonoids such as buddleoside (BUD) from Chrysanthemum indicum L. are the main pharmacological components of cardiovascular activities. Previous studies have suggested that the buddleoside-rich Chrysanthemum indicum L. extract (BUDE) can reduce blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). However, its effect on MH and how it works remains to be researched. In this study, it was observed that BUDE could lower blood pressure, improve dyslipidemia, and decrease the level of plasma LPS in MH rats. Moreover, BUDE improved intestinal flora and increased the expression of occludin and claudin-1 in the colon, and improved the pathological injury of the colon. Western bolt and qRT-PCR experiments showed that BUDE could down-regulate TLR4 and MyD88 protein and mRNA expression and inhibit phosphorylation of IKKβ, IκBα and NF-κB p65 in vessels of MH rats. These results showed that BUDE could regulate intestinal flora, improve intestinal barrier function, reduce the production and penetration of LPS, thereby inhibiting the vascular TLR4/MyD88 pathway, improving vascular endothelial function, and ultimately lowering blood pressure in MH rats. This study provides a new mechanism of BUDE against MH by inhibiting the enteric-origin LPS/TLR4 pathway.

Discovery of Quality Markers of Nucleobases, Nucleosides, Nucleotides and Amino Acids for Chrysanthemi Flos From Different Geographical Origins Using UPLC-MS/MS Combined With Multivariate Statistical Analysis

Nucleobases, nucleosides, nucleotides and amino acids, as crucial nutrient compositions, play essential roles in determining the flavor, function and quality of Chrysanthemi Flos. The quality of Chrysanthemi Flos from different geographical origins is uneven, but there have been no reports about the screening of their quality markers based on nutritional ingredients. Here, we developed a comprehensive strategy integrating ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple-quadrupole linear ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) and multivariate statistical analysis to explore quality markers of Chrysanthemi Flos from different geographical origins and conduct quality evaluation and discrimination of them. Firstly, a fast, sensitive, and reliable UPLC-MS/MS method was established for simultaneous quantification 28 nucleobases, nucleosides, nucleotides and amino acids of Chrysanthemi Flos from nine different regions in China. The results demonstrated that Chrysanthemi Flos from nine different cultivation regions were rich in the above 28 nutritional contents and their contents were obvious different; however, correlation analysis showed that altitude was not the main factor for these differences, which required further investigation. Subsequently, eight crucial quality markers for nine different geographical origins of Chrysanthemi Flos, namely, 2'-deoxyadenosine, guanosine, adenosine 3',5'-cyclic phosphate (cAMP), guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cGMP), arginine, proline, glutamate and tryptophan, were screened for the first time using partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and the plot of variable importance for projection (VIP). Moreover, a hierarchical clustering analysis heat map was employed to intuitively clarify the distribution of eight quality markers in the nine different regions of Chrysanthemi Flos. Finally, based on the contents of selected eight quality markers, support vector machines (SVM) model was established to predict the geographical origins of Chrysanthemi Flos, which yielded excellent prediction performance with an average prediction accuracy of 100%. Taken together, the proposed strategy was suitable to discover the quality markers of Chrysanthemi Flos and could be used to discriminate its geographical origin.

An Effective Workflow for Differentiating the Same Genus Herbs of Chrysanthemum morifolium Flower and Chrysanthemum Indicum Flower

C. morifolium flower and C. indicum flower are two closely related herbal species with similar morphological and microscopic characteristics but are discriminated in edible and medicinal purpose. However, there is no effective approach to distinguish the two herbs. A novel workflow for quickly differentiating C. morifolium flower and C. indicum flower was developed. Firstly, the difference in anti-inflammatory effects for C. morifolium flower and C. indicum flower was characterized using lipopolysaccharide-treated rats. Then HPLC fingerprint analysis for 53 batches of C. morifolium flowers and 33 batches of C. indicum flower was carried out to deep profile the chemical components. The preliminary markers were screened out by OPLS-DA, identified by HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS, and quantified by the improved SSDMC (single reference standard to determine multiple compounds) approach. Finally, multiple statistical data mining was performed to confirm the markers and a binary logistic regression equation was built to differentiate C. morifolium flower and C. indicum flower successfully. In general, the established workflow was rapid, effective and highly feasible, which would provide a powerful tool for herb identification.

The flower head of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (Juhua): A paradigm of flowers serving as Chinese dietary herbal medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dietary herbal medicines are widely used for the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases due to their pharmacological activities in China. Juhua (the flower head of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.), the most representative flower-derived one, which is mainly used for the treatment of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, shows significant activities, such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer, and, neuroprotective, as well as effects on the cardiovascular system.

AIMS OF THIS REVIEW

This review aims to provide an overview of the crucial roles of flowers in Chinese dietary herbal medicine, and the pharmaceutical research progress of Juhua (the paradigm of dietary herbal medicine derived from the flower) including its applications in Traditional Chinese medicine and diet, cultivars, phytochemistry, quality control, pharmacology, and toxicity, along with chrysanthemum breeding and biotechnology.

METHOD

The information associated with Chinese dietary herbal medicine, flower-derived medicine, dietary flower, and pharmaceutical research of Juhua, was collected from government reports, classic books of Traditional Chinese medicine, the thesis of doctors of philosophy and maters, and database including Pubmed, Scifinder, Web of Science, Google Scholar, China National Knowledge Internet; and others.

RESULT

All flower-originated crude medicines recorded in Chinese pharmacopeia and their applications were summarized for the first time in this paper. The edible history and development of flowers in China, the theory of Chinese dietary herbal medicines, as well as flowers serving as dietary herbal medicines, were discussed. Moreover, applications in Traditional Chinese medicine and diet, cultivars, phytochemistry, quality control, pharmacology, and safety evaluation of Juhua, together with chrysanthemum breeding and biotechnology, were summarized in this paper.

CONCLUSION

The theory of dietary herbal medicines, which are an important part of the Traditional Chinese medicine system, has a history of thousands of years. Many herbal flowers, serving as dietary herbal medicines, contribute significantly to the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases for Chinese people. To better benefit human health, more effective supervision practice for dietary herbal medicines is needed. Although various investigations on Juhua have been done, there is a lack of analytical methods for discrimination of cultivar flowers and identification of authenticity. Research on the major compounds with bioactivities, especially those related to its clinical application or healthcare function, as well as their possible mechanize, need be strengthened. More safety evaluation of Juhua should be carried out. The research limitations Juhua is facing exist in all dietary herbal medicine.

Qiju Dihuang Decoction for Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

To systematically evaluate the efficacy of Chinese herbal medicine Qiju Dihuang Decoction (QDD) for hypertension.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search of randomized controlled trials using QDD to treat hypertension was conducted in 7 electronic databases, including Chinese databases. Subjects and abstracts of the trials were read in NoteExpress for preliminary screening, and the full text was read for further screening. The data extraction table was made for the selected 19 trials, and risk of bias was assessed by using the Cochrane collaboration tool, followed by data analysis using Rev Man 5.3.

RESULTS

The antihypertensive efficacy of QDD is 1.45 times that of antihypertensive drugs and 1.56 times that of conventional therapies, which can also reduce the endothelin level. QPAD exhibits an antihypertensive effect, and its clinical efficacy is 1.34 times and 1.61 times that of antihypertensive drugs, which can not only significantly lower the diastolic blood pressure but also reduce the 24 h mean ambulate blood pressure. At the same time, it can decrease the TCM syndrome score, inhibit the inflammation, protect the renal function, reduce the insulin resistance, and improve the life quality of patients.

CONCLUSION

QDD can effectively reduce blood pressure and improve the life quality of patients with hypertension, which plays a certain role in preventing hypertension complications. However, due to the methodological deficiencies, more rigorous randomized controlled trials will be needed in the future to provide stronger evidence.

Comparison of Phenolic Compounds and the Antioxidant Activities of Fifteen Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat cv. 'Hangbaiju' in China

This study investigated the phenolic compounds of 15 Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat cv. ‘Hangbaiju’, including 6 ‘Duoju’ and 9 ‘Taiju’, using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The antioxidant activities of these ‘Hangbaiju’ were estimated by DPPH, ABTS and FRAP assays. Results show that a total of 14 phenolic compounds were detected in these flowers, including 3 mono-caffeoylquinic acids, 3 di-caffeoylquinic acids, 1 phenolic acid and 7 flavonoids. ‘Duoju’ and ‘Taiju’ possess different concentrations of phenolic compounds, and ‘Taiju’ exhibits higher caffeoylquinic acids and stronger antioxidant activities than ‘Duoju’. Caffeoylquinic acids show a strong correlation with the antioxidant activities of the samples. Principal component analysis (PCA) reveals an obvious separation between ‘Duoju’ and ‘Taiju’, using phenolic compounds as variables. Apigenin-7-O-glucoside, 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, luteolin and acacetin were found to be the key phenolic compounds to differentiate ‘Duoju’ from ‘Taiju’.

An integration of UPLC-DAD/ESI-Q-TOF MS, GC-MS, and PCA analysis for quality evaluation and identification of cultivars of Chrysanthemi Flos (Juhua)

BACKGROUND

Chrysanthemi Flos (CF), as a popular traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), has five main cultivars in China, namely "Chuju", "Boju", "Gongju", "Huaiju" and "Hangju". Due to their habitats and processing methods, great quality variations occur yet no systematical study has ever been carried out to evaluate such variations.

PURPOSE

In this study, we aim to establish a new approach that can serve both as a quality control method and as an identification method for cultivars of CF.

METHOD

The components in CF samples were identified by a combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS. Furthermore, a multimodal quantitative method was established by UPLC-UV coupled with principal component analysis (PCA) and the similarity evaluation system (SES), which was used to control and identify four cultivars of CF.

RESULTS

18 compounds of flavonoids and caffeoylquinic acids were identified and ten of them were quantified using UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS. Different cultivars of CF could be clearly distinguished with the fingerprints evaluation and principal component analysis (PCA). A total of 74 volatile compounds were detected by GC/MS. The distinctness of volatile components was observed. By the combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS, an identification and quality control method for CF was successfully established.

CONCLUSION

The combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS could act as a comprehensive multimodal method for both identification and quality control of herbal medicines. This study provided new insights into the overall evaluation method for herbal medicines possessing different cultivars.

New Caffeoylquinic Acid Derivatives and Flavanone Glycoside from the Flowers of Chrysanthemum morifolium and Their Bioactivities

The Chrysanthemum morifolium flower is widely used in China and Japan as a food, beverage, and medicine for many diseases. In our work, two new caffeoylquinic acid derivatives (1, 2), a new flavanone glycoside (3), and six reported flavanones (4–9) were isolated and identified from the flowers of C. morifolium. The chemical structures of all isolates were elucidated by the analysis of comprehensive spectroscopic data as well as by comparison with previously reported data. The isolated constituents 1–8 were evaluated for their neuroprotective activity, and compounds 3 and 4 displayed neuroprotective effects against hydrogen peroxide-induced neurotoxicity in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells.

Phytochemical Composition and Antioxidant Activities of Two Different Color Chrysanthemum Flower Teas

Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat is a perennial flowering plant widely cultivated for use in a tea infusion and as a popular beverage. To identify and evaluate the tea infusion made with a γ-irradiated mutant chrysanthemum cultivar with dark purple petals (cv. ARTI-Dark Chocolate), its phytochemical composition and antioxidant activity were tested and compared with those of the commercially available chrysanthemum cultivar with yellow petals (cv. Gamguk) by HPLC-DAD-ESIMS, as well as DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging assays. The purple chrysanthemum tea contained anthocyanins and linarin, which were not detected in the yellow chrysanthemum tea and the content of chlorogenic acid, acacetin-7-O-β-glucoside, and luteolin was higher compared with the yellow chrysanthemum tea. In contrast, the yellow chrysanthemum tea had higher luteolin-7-O-β-glucoside, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, apigenin-7-O-β-glucoside, and apigenin contents in comparison with the purple chrysanthemum tea. In addition, the content and antioxidant activity of the two chrysanthemum teas were investigated according to different water temperatures and infusing time. The yellow chrysanthemum tea did not show any significant differences according to infusing time and temperature, while the purple chrysanthemum tea was more influenced by the infusing time than water temperature, showing the highest total compound content in the infusing condition of 100 °C and 4 min. Moreover, the floral scent volatiles of the two chrysanthemum tea sources were analyzed using HS-SPME-GC-MS. In the DPPH radical scavenging assay, the purple chrysanthemum tea broadly showed greater antioxidant activity than did the yellow chrysanthemum tea, corresponding to the high content of anthocyanins known as the powerful antioxidant. Further, both chrysanthemum flower teas exhibited strong ABTS radical scavenging effects ranging from 76% to 61% under all infusing conditions. Therefore, the purple chrysanthemum cultivar, ARTI-Dark Chocolate, is worthy of breeding as a new tea cultivar.

Transcriptome analysis of differentially expressed unigenes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis during flower development of Chrysanthemum morifolium 'Chuju'

Chrysanthemum morifolium is an ornamentally and medicinally important plant species. Up to date, molecular and genetic investigations have largely focused on determination of flowering time in the ornamental species. However, little is known about gene regulatory networks for the biosynthesis of flavonoids in the medicinal species. In the current study, we employed the high-throughput sequencing technology to profile the genome-wide transcriptome of C. morifolium 'Chuju', a famous medicinal species in traditional Chinese medicine. A total of 63,854 unigenes with an average length of 741 bp were obtained. Bioinformatic analysis has identified a great number of structural and regulatory unigenes potentially participating in the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway. According to the comparison of digital gene expression, 8,370 (3,026 up-regulated and 5,344 down-regulated), 1,348 (717 up-regulated and 631 down-regulated) and 944 (206 up-regulated and 738 down-regulated) differentially expressed unigenes (DEUs) were detected in the early, middle and mature growth phases, respectively. Among them, many DEUs were implicated in controlling the biosynthesis and composition of flavonoids from the budding to full blooming stages during flower development. Furthermore, the expression patterns of 12 unigenes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis were generally validated by using quantitative real time PCR. These findings could shed light on the molecular basis of flavonoid biosynthesis in C. morifolium 'Chuju' and provide a genetic resource for breeding varieties with improved nutritional quality.

Plant Phenolics Extraction from Flos Chrysanthemi: Response Surface Methodology Based Optimization and the Correlation Between Extracts and Free Radical Scavenging Activity

Huaiju is one of the most famous and widely used Flos Chrysanthemi (FC) for medicinal purposes in China. Although various investigations aimed at phenolics extraction from other FC have been reported, a thorough optimization of the phenolics extraction conditions from Huaiju has not been achieved. This work applied the widely used response surface methodology (RSM) to investigate the effects of 3 independent variables including ethanol concentration (%), extraction time (min), and solvent-to-material ratio (mL/g) on the ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of phenolics from FC. The data suggested the optimal UAE condition was an ethanol concentration of 75.3% and extraction time of 43.5 min, whereas the ratio of solvent to material has no significant effect. When the free radical scavenging ability was used as an indicator for a successful extraction, a similar optimal extraction was achieved with an ethanol concentration of 72.8%, extraction time of 44.3 min, and the ratio of solvent to material was 29.5 mL/g. Furthermore, a moderate correlation between the antioxidant activity of TP extract and the content of extracted phenolic compounds was observed. Moreover, a well consistent of the experimental values under optimal conditions with those predicted values suggests RSM successfully optimized the UAE conditions for phenolics extraction from FC.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

The work of the research investigated the plant phenolics in Flos Chrysanthemi and antioxidant capacities. These results of this study can support the development of antioxidant additive and relative food.

Synergetic effect of the Onion CHI gene on the PAP1 regulatory gene for enhancing the flavonoid profile of tomato skin

Tomatoes are known to have ameliorative effects on cardiovascular disease and cancer. The nutritional value of tomatoes can be enhanced by increasing flavonoids content through genetic modification. The regulatory gene PAP1 (production of anthocyanin pigment 1) from Arabidopsis is reported to increase initial flavonoid flux and anthocyanin content. The structural gene CHI from Alium cepa increases flavonol content. However, the number of structural genes that can be transferred to plants is limited. To solve this problem, for the first time, we produced gene stacking transgenic tomato, in which Arabidopsis PAP1 (production of anthocyanin pigment 1) was stacked with an onion CHI by crossing. This procedure resulted in increased rutin and total anthocyanin content of as much as 130 and 30 times more, respectively, than the content in wild tomato skin, compared with 2.3 and 3 times more flavonol content, and 1 and 1.5 times more anthocyanin content in unstacked FLS and PAP1 tomatoes, respectively.

Antioxidant Phytochemicals for the Prevention and Treatment of Chronic Diseases

Overproduction of oxidants (reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species) in the human body is responsible for the pathogenesis of some diseases. The scavenging of these oxidants is thought to be an effective measure to depress the level of oxidative stress of organisms. It has been reported that intake of vegetables and fruits is inversely associated with the risk of many chronic diseases, and antioxidant phytochemicals in vegetables and fruits are considered to be responsible for these health benefits. Antioxidant phytochemicals can be found in many foods and medicinal plants, and play an important role in the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases caused by oxidative stress. They often possess strong antioxidant and free radical scavenging abilities, as well as anti-inflammatory action, which are also the basis of other bioactivities and health benefits, such as anticancer, anti-aging, and protective action for cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, obesity and neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes recent progress on the health benefits of antioxidant phytochemicals, and discusses their potential mechanisms in the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases.

Quantitative comparison of caffeoylquinic acids and flavonoids in Chrysanthemum morifolium flowers and their sulfur-fumigated products by three-channel liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection

For the determination of seven caffeoylquinic acids [neochlorogenic acid (NcA), cryptochlorogenic acid (CcA), chlorogenic acid (CA), caffeic acid (CfA), isochlorogenic acid A (Ic A), isochlorogenic acid B (Ic B), isochlorogenic acid C (Ic C)] and two flavonoids [luteolin 7-O-glucoside (LtG) and luteolin (Lt)], a three-channel liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (LC-3ECD) method was established. Chromatographic peak heights were proportional to each concentration, ranging from 2.5 to 100 ng/mL for NcA, CA, CcA, and CfA, and ranging from 2.5 to 250 ng/mL for LtG, Ic B, Ic A, Ic C, and Lt, respectively. The present LC-3ECD method was applied to the quantitative analysis of caffeoylquinic acids and flavonoids in four cultivars of Chrysanthemum morifolium flowers and their sulfur-fumigated products. It was found that 60% of LtG and more than 47% of caffeoylquinic acids were lost during the sulfur fumigation processing. Sulfur fumigation showed a destructive effect on the C. morifolium flowers. In addition, principle component analyses (PCA) were performed using the results of the quantitative analysis of caffeoylquinic acids and flavonoids to compare the "sameness" and "differences" of these analytes in C. morifolium flowers and the sulfur-fumigated products. PCA score plots showed that the four cultivars of C. morifolium flowers were clearly classified into four groups, and that significant differences were also found between the non-fumigated C. morifolium flowers and the sulfur-fumigated products. Therefore, it was demonstrated that the present LC-3ECD method coupled with PCA is applicable to the variation analysis of different C. morifolium flower samples.

Comparative evaluation of different cultivars of Flos Chrysanthemi by an anti-inflammatory-based NF-κB reporter gene assay coupled to UPLC-Q/TOF MS with PCA and ANN

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Flos Chrysanthemi (FC), a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine, has five major cultivars ("Boju", "Chuju", "Gongju", "Hangbaiju" and "Huaiju") from different sources. However, the active constituents of these cultivars have not been studied or characterized with respect to their bioactivity, which is a serious problem when considering quality and safety.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the differences among the five cultivars of FC, and to establish a method for the standardization and quality control of FC related to its bioactivity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, the different ingredients in five cultivars of FC were identified by UPLC-Q/TOF and PCA, and the anti-inflammatory ingredients of FC were predicted and screened by artificial neural network (ANN) and an NF-κB luciferase reporter gene assay system. Using this comprehensive method, we successfully screened the anti-inflammatory markers of different cultivars of FC.

RESULTS

Nineteen marker ingredients were confirmed to contribute strongly to the cluster, and eleven compounds in the five cultivars of FC were found to exert potential anti-inflammatory effects. Among these compounds, the NF-κB inhibitor activity of apigenin-7-O-6″-malonyl-glucoside, luteolin-7-O-rutinoside, quercetin-7-O-galactoside, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, apigenin-7-O-rutinoside and apigenin-7-O-glucoside were first reported here. Chlorogenic acid, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid and luteolin were confirmed to be the most important anti-inflammatory marker ingredients useful for the quality control of FC.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed efficient and systematic method is helpful for the standardization and quality control of FC. Moreover, this comprehensive strategy may prove to be a powerful technique for the rapid establishment of quality control procedures related to bioactivity for other herbal samples and foods.

Preparative Purification of Linarin Extracts from Dendranthema indicum Flowers and Evaluation of Its Antihypertensive Effect

Background. Preliminary research showed that linarin (LIN) might have a relationship with the antihypertensive effect of Dendranthema indicum flowers. However, the preparative method for LIN enriched extract from Dendranthema indicum flowers was not clear and its antihypertensive effect was not confirmed. In this study, we designed a series of experiments to develop an efficient method for purification of LIN extracts and confirm the possibility of LIN extracts to be an antihypertensive drug. Materials and Methods. HPLC-VWD/DAD were used in the process of developing purification method. The antihypertensive effect of LIN extracts was tested by CODA Mouse & Rat Tail-Cuff Blood Pressure System; western blot and biochemical analysis were used to investigate mechanism and toxicity. Results. The content and recovery of LIN reached 55.68 ± 2.08% and 66.65 ± 1.73%, respectively, through solid-liquid extraction. The composition of product was stable through the analysis of fingerprint. Chronic administration of LIN extracts reduced blood pressure obviously which had a relationship with the inhibition of renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in kidney and the function indexes of kidney and liver had no variations. Conclusions. The preparation method was simple, low-cost, and stable, and it was fit for industrial application. The LIN prepared by this method had the potential to be an antihypertensive drug.

Luteolin from Flos Chrysanthemi and its derivatives: New small molecule Bcl-2 protein inhibitors

Over-expression of the Bcl-2 anti-apoptotic proteins is closely related to tumorigenesis and associated with drug resistance. Here we report that luteolin, a main substance found in Flos Chrysanthemi, directly binds to and shows inhibitory activity against the Bcl-2 protein. We studied the binding mode of luteolin and its derivatives with target proteins, their structure-activity relationship, and their effect on the human leukemia cell line HL-60. The results suggest that luteolin and its derivatives with a benzyl group introduced to the B ring, are new small molecule Bcl-2 protein inhibitors, and their anti-tumor activity is likely related to their effect on the Bcl-2 protein.

Study on the effects of sulfur fumigation on chemical constituents and antioxidant activity of Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Hang-ju

The traditional after-harvesting drying method of C. morifolium cv. Hang-ju (HJ) is sun drying, but recently sulfur fumigation is increasingly used as a cheap and convenient method. However, the effects of sulfur fumigation on chemical constituents and potential activities of HJ were unknown. A comprehensively comparison of the chemical profiles between non-fumigated HJ (NHJ) and sulfur-fumigated HJ (SHJ) was conducted by HPLC fingerprints analysis and the discrepant peaks were identified or tentatively assigned by HPLC-ESI/MS(n). Dramatic chemical changes were found that the contents of 4 flavonoid aglycones remarkably increased while those of 7 glycosides significantly reduced which suggested that sulfur-fumigation induced flavonoid glycosides transformed into aglycons by hydrolysis reaction. A significant loss of hydroxycinnamoylquinic acids showed the sulfur fumigation was a destructive effect on HJ. Principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to rapidly discriminate NHJ and SHJ samples. By ICP-OES analysis, it was found that the residue of sulfur of SHJ were three times higher than NHJ (p<0.05). The antioxidant activity of NHJ and SHJ were evaluated by DPPH and FRAP assay, and the results showed that NHJ had much stronger antioxidant activities than SCF (p<0.05). Combining the results of chemical analysis, residue of sulfur and pharmacological evaluation, it showed that the sulfur fumigation was a destructive effect on HJ.

Combined antihypertensive effect of luteolin and buddleoside enriched extracts in spontaneously hypertensive rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Flos Chrysanthemi is used in a variety of diseases in traditional Chinese medicine including hypertension, and the total flavonoids (rich in luteolin (LUT) and buddleoside (BUD)) of Flos Chrysanthemi is known to modulate vascular functions and reduce the blood pressure. However, the active flavonoids and their synergistic effects on anti-hypertension are still unclear. To investigate the combined anti-hypertension effects of LUT and BUD enriched extracts on spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), as well as the anti-hypertensive mechanism of LUT&BUD mixture.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CODA Mouse & Rat Tail-Cuff Blood Pressure System was used to measure the systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of SHR after treated with extracts contains with LUT and/or BUD. The expressions of Ang II, PRA, ALD, ET, PGI2 and TXB2 were investigated by ELASA. Serum NO concentration was measured by the method of Nitric acid reductase.

RESULTS

A single administration of LUT, BUD, or LUT:BUD=1:1 significantly reduced SBP by about 3.35 mmHg, 4.39 mmHg and 15.42 mmHg, respectively. Chronic administration of LBM (at 60 mg/kg; p.o. for 30 days) reduced both SBP and DBP by 4.04% and 5.24% of the vehicle group, respectively. Oral administration of LBM at 60 mg/kg inhibited the serum levels of ANG, ALD and ET, but increased serum NO concentration.

CONCLUSION

This study shows the synergistic anti-hypertension effects of LUT and BUD in SHR. The effects of LBM on blood pressure are associated with RAAS and endothelial system. Thus, our experiments suggest that the combination of luteolin and buddleoside from Flos Chrysanthemi are potentially useful for the therapeutic treatments for hypertension.

Comparative evaluation of cultivars of Chrysanthemum morifolium flowers by HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS analysis and antiallergic assay

A multicomponent quantification fingerprint based on HPLC coupled with diode array detection and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS) technique has been established for the analysis of phenolic compounds in 12 samples originated from 5 different cultivars of Chrysanthemum morifolium flowers in China. Four caffeoylquinic acids and 15 flavonoids in the capitulum were identified by comparing the retention times and ultraviolet spectra as well as the mass spectrum and/or matching the empirical molecular formula with that of reference compounds, and the contents of these compounds have been determined simultaneously. The samples from three medicinal cultivars significantly differed in the quality and quantity of flavonoid aglycones and glycosides compared with those from two edible cultivars, which allows the possibility of showing the chemical distinctness of these cultivars and may be useful in their standardization. Moreover, the antiallergic effects of these cultivars were comparatively assayed for the first time. A representative medicinal cultivar, 'huaiju', showed potential activity on the inhibition of antigen-induced degranulation from RBL-2H3 cells and compound 48/80-induced scratching in mice, whereas the in vitro and in vivo antiallergic activities of two edible cultivars were weak. The results suggested that the quality and quantity of some active flavonoid aglycones should be responsible for the pharmacological profiles of these cultivars.