Effects of Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz., root bark on ICAM-1 expression and chemokine productions in vivo and vitro study

Targeting chemokine-receptor mediated molecular signaling by ethnopharmacological approaches

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Infection and inflammation are critical to global human health status and the goal of current pharmacological interventions intends formulating medications/preventives as a measure to deal with this situation. Chemokines and their cognate receptors are major regulatory molecules in many of these ailments. Natural products have been a keen source to the drug development industry, every year contributing significantly to the growing list of FDA approved drugs. A multiverse of natural resource is employed as a part of curative regimen in folk/traditional/ethnomedicine which can be employed to discover, repurpose, and design potent medications for the diseases of clinical concern.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review aims to systematically document the ethnopharmacologically active agents targeting the infectious-inflammatory diseases through the chemokine-receptor nexus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Articles related to chemokine/receptor modulating ethnopharmacological anti-inflammatory, anti-infectious natural sources, bioactive compounds, and formulations have been examined with special emphasis on women related diseases. The available literature has been thoroughly scrutinized for the application of traditional medicines in chemokine associated experimental methods, their regulatory outcomes, and pertinence to women's health wherever applicable. Moreover, the potential traditional regimens under clinical trials have been critically assessed.

RESULTS

A systematic and comprehensive review on the chemokine-receptor targeting ethnopharmaceutics from the available literature has been provided. The article discusses the implication of traditional medicine in the chemokine system dynamics in diverse infectious-inflammatory disorders such as cardiovascular diseases, allergic diseases, inflammatory diseases, neuroinflammation, and cancer. On this note, critical evaluation of the available data surfaced multiple diseases prevalent in women such as osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, breast cancer, cervical cancer and urinary tract infection. Currently there is no available literature highlighting chemokine-receptor targeting using traditional medicinal approach from women's health perspective. Moreover, despite being potent in vitro and in vivo setups there remains a gap in clinical translation of these formulations, which needs to be strategically and scientifically addressed to pave the way for their successful industrial translation.

CONCLUSIONS

The review provides an optimistic global perspective towards the applicability of ethnopharmacology in chemokine-receptor regulated infectious and inflammatory diseases with special emphasis on ailments prevalent in women, consecutively addressing their current status of clinical translation and future directions.

Network pharmacology-based analysis to explore the therapeutic mechanism of Cortex Dictamni on atopic dermatitis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dermatitis is a common clinical chronic inflammatory skin disease, which incidence has been on the rise in recent years. It not only seriously affects the physical and mental health of patients but also increase economic burden. Currently, commonly used drugs such as corticosteroids, anti-histamines have certain side effects or are expensive. Therefore, the search for an alternative therapy for dermatitis has important clinical significance. Cortex Dictamni is a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine for expelling wind and itching, but its mechanism for treating dermatitis is still unclear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Network pharmacological analysis was performed to predict the potential targets and pathways of Cortex Dictamni against dermatitis. Molecular docking was used to assess the binding affinity of active compounds and core targets. By repeatedly stimulating the ears with 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNFB), an atopic dermatitis (AD) mouse model was established in order to study the anti-dermatitis effect of Cortex Dictamni. The skin thickness and inflammatory cell infiltration in mouse ears were assessed by tissue staining and flow cytometric. The levels of inflammatory factors were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the total protein and phosphorylation levels of related pathways were analyzed by western blotting.

RESULTS

In this study, 11 active ingredients, 122 Cortex Dictamni and dermatitis intersection targets were identified. The results from Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis showed that the core targets were mainly enriched in immune response and inflammatory signaling pathways. AD mice treated with ethanol extract of Cortex Dictamni (ECD) improved the symptoms of ear skin lesions, alleviated epidermis and dermis thickening of the AD mice ears, decreased pathological immune cell infiltration and attenuated the levels of inflammatory cytokines (TLR4, IL-6, IL-17), and inhibited the hyperactivation of the PI3K-AKT, JAK1-STAT3/STAT6 signal pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Cortex Dictamni can improve the symptoms of skin lesions and the degree of inflammation caused by AD, and may inhibit AD through multiple pathways, such as regulating PI3K-AKT and JAK1-STAT3/STAT6 pathways. These results not only provide experimental evidence for the clinical application of Cortex Dictamni but also provide some help for the research and development of dermatitis drugs.

Anti-inflammatory effects of a methanol extract of Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz. root bark on imiquimod-induced psoriasis

BACKGROUND

The root bark of Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz. has been successfully used for the treatment of inflammatory skin conditions such as eczema and pruritus. However, the anti-psoriatic effect of this plant has not until now been investigated.

METHODS

The aim of this project was to investigate whether a methanol extract of Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz. root bark (MEDD) can be used as a therapeutic agent for psoriasis in C57BL/6 mice model of imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis. IMQ and MEDD was applied to mouse skin continuously for 7 days. The skin phenotype and the levels of inflammatory cytokines, such as interferon (IFN)-γ and interleukin (IL)-17, were analyzed. The immune cell population was determined by flow cytometry, and STAT1 and 3 protein levels were measured.

RESULTS

An alleviation of scaly skin phenotype, immune cell infiltration in the dermis, and epidermal hyperplasia was observed after daily MEDD treatment in the lesion-affected area. It was also found that MEDD reduced IL-17 cytokine levels decreased by 44.37% (p < 0.05), the number of IL-17-producing Th17 cells and γδT cells, and the size of the Th1 population secreting IFN-γ decreased by 45.98, 62.21, and 44.42%, respectively (p < 0.05), compared with the vehicle control group. STAT3 signals, associated with IL-17 are also reduced by MEDD.

CONCLUSIONS

An anti-psoriatic effect of MEDD was observed, as determined by decreased skin inflammation, reduced number of inflammatory cytokines, and a smaller population of inflammatory cells. These results contribute to the validation of the use of MEDD in the treatment of psoriasis.

Effect of total glucosides of paeony on the changes of IL-4 and ICAM-1 levels in eczema mouse model serum

Effect of total glucosides of paeony on the changes of IL-4 and ICAM-1 levels in eczema mouse model serum was investigated. A total of 38 KM mice of SPF grade were divided into 3 groups: the control group (n=10), the model group (n=15) and the treatment group (n=13). The pathological model of chronic eczema in mouse right ear was induced using dinitrochlorobenzene acetone solution. Two ears of mice in the control group and the left ear of mice in the model and treatment groups were smeared with acetone as control. The mice in the treatment group were treated by administration with total glucoside of paeony. The changes of IL-4 and ICAM-1 levels were measured using caudal vein blood collection. The mouse ear weight was measured and the relationship among IL-4 and ICAM-1 levels, ear thickness and treatment time was analyzed. Mouse ear thickness in the model group was higher than that in the treatment and control groups (P<0.05). The weight of the mouse right ear in the model and treatment groups was significantly higher than that of the left ear (P<0.05). Furthermore, The IL-4 and ICAM-1 levels of mice in the model group were higher than that in the treatment and control groups (P<0.05). The IL-4 and ICAM-1 levels of mice in the model and treatment groups increased compared to that before modeling (P<0.05). The IL-4 and ICAM-1 levels of mice were positively correlated with ear thickness in the model group (r=0.865, P=0.002; r=0.833, P=0.009). In addition, the IL-4 level of mice was positively correlated with the ICAM-1 level in the model group (r=0.812, P=0.014). Finally, IL-4 and ICAM-1 may be involved in the pathologic process of chronic eczema. Therefore, the study showed that the total glucosides of paeony may play a role in the treatment of chronic eczema by regulating the IL-4 and ICAM-1 levels.

Anti-inflammatory Effects of Brassica oleracea Var. capitata L. (Cabbage) Methanol Extract in Mice with Contact Dermatitis

Background:

Cabbage, Brassica oleracea var. capitata L., is one of the most common vegetables in the world. Because of its high levels of flavonoids and anthocyanins, cabbage has long been used as a herbal medicine. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of cabbage were also recently been reported.

Objective:

This study was designed to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of cabbage in mice with contact dermatitis (CD).

Materials and Methods:

We investigated the effects of methanol extract of B. oleracea var. capitata L. (MEBO) on ear swelling, erythema, and histopathological changes in CD mice. Moreover, the effects on cytokine production and the spleen/body weight ratio were investigated.

Results:

Topical treatment with MEBO inhibited ear swelling and erythema significantly. MEBO also significantly inhibited epidermal hyperplasia and infiltration of immune cells. Furthermore, the levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma, interleukin-6, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 in inflamed tissues were effectively lowered by MEBO. Finally, MEBO did not affect body weight gain or spleen body weight ratio.

Conclusions:

These results indicate that cabbage can be used for the treatment of skin inflammation and that its anti-inflammatory activity is closely related to the inhibition of Th1 skewing reactions.

SUMMARY

MEBO inhibited ear thickness, weight, and erythema in inflamed skin

MEBO also prevented epidermal hyperplasia and infiltration of immune cells

The levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, interleukin-6, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 in inflamed tissues were lowered by MEBO.

Abbreviations used: AOO: Acetone and olive oil (4:1), CBA: Cytometric bead array, CD: Contact dermatitis, DEX: Dexamethasone, DNFB: 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene, GM-CSF: Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, ICAM-1: Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1, LPS: Lipopolysaccharide, MEBO: Methanol extract of Brassica oleracea, MCP-1: Monocyte chemotactic protein-1, NO: Nitric oxide.

Traditional Chinese Medicine Use among Patients with Psoriasis in Taiwan: A Nationwide Population-Based Study

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has long been used for patients with psoriasis. This study aimed to investigate TCM usage in patients with psoriasis. We analyzed a cohort of one million individuals representing the 23 million enrollees randomly selected from the National Health Insurance Research Database in Taiwan. We identified 28,510 patients newly diagnosed with psoriasis between 2000 and 2010. Among them, 20,084 (70.4%) patients were TCM users. Patients who were female, younger, white-collar workers and lived in urbanized area tended to be TCM users. The median interval between the initial diagnosis of psoriasis to the first TCM consultation was 12 months. More than half (N = 11,609; 57.8%) of the TCM users received only Chinese herbal medicine. Win-qing-yin and Bai-xian-pi were the most commonly prescribed Chinese herbal formula and single herb, respectively. The core prescription pattern comprised Mu-dan-pi, Wen-qing-yin, Zi-cao, Bai-xian-pi, and Di-fu-zi. Patients preferred TCM than Western medicine consultations when they had metabolic syndrome, hepatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, alopecia areata, Crohn's disease, cancer, depression, fatty liver, chronic airway obstruction, sleep disorder, and allergic rhinitis. In conclusion, TCM use is popular among patients with psoriasis in Taiwan. Future clinical trials to investigate its efficacy are warranted.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Artemisia Leaf Extract in Mice with Contact Dermatitis In Vitro and In Vivo

The leaves of Artemisia argyi Lev. et Vant. and A. princeps Pamp. are well known medicinal herbs used to treat patients in China, Japan, and Korea with skin problems such as eczema and itching, as well as abdominal pain and dysmenorrhoea. We investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of Artemisia leaf extract (ALE) using CD mice and Raw 264.7 cells. The effects of ALE on histopathological changes and cytokine production in ear tissues were assessed in mice with CD induced by 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNFB). Moreover, the anti-inflammatory effects on production levels of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) and nitric oxide (NO) and expression levels of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were investigated in Raw 264.7 cells. Topical application of ALE effectively prevented ear swelling induced by repeated DNFB application. ALE prevented epidermal hyperplasia and infiltration of immune cells and lowered the production of interferon- (IFN-) gamma (γ), tumour necrosis factor- (TNF-) alpha (α), and interleukin- (IL-) 6 in inflamed tissues. In addition, ALE inhibited expression of COX-2 and iNOS and production of NO and PGE₂ in Raw 264.7 cells. These results indicate that Artemisia leaf can be used as a therapeutic agent for inflammatory skin diseases and that its anti-inflammatory effects are closely related to the inhibition of inflammatory mediator release from macrophages and inflammatory cytokine production in inflamed tissues.

Identifying Chinese herbal medicine network for treating acne: Implications from a nationwide database

ETHNO-PHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Acne is a highly prevalent inflammatory skin disease which causes patients great psychological stress, especially teenagers. Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) is commonly used to treat acne with personalized but complicated prescriptions. The aim of this study is to determine a CHM network and core CHM treatments for acne by analyzing a nationwide database.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

From January 1st to December 31st, 2011, all CHM prescriptions made for acne (ICD-9-CM code: 706.0 or 706.1) were included in this study. Visits with acupuncture, manual therapy or other treatment modalities were excluded, and CHM visits with other diagnoses were also excluded in final analysis. Association rule mining (ARM) and social network analysis (SNA) were used to explore and demonstrate a CHM network.

RESULTS

A total of 91,129 patients used traditional Chinese medicine, and 99% of them chose CHM for acne treatment. Most CHM users were teenagers, and there were twice as many female patients as male patients. A total of 279,823 CHM prescriptions were made for acne in 2011. Qing-Shang-Fang-Feng-Tang was the most commonly used CHM (31.2% of all prescriptions), and Zhen-Ren-Huo-Ming-Yin combined with Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl. (Lian Qiao) was the most commonly used CHM-CHM combination. Thirty-one important CHM-CHM combinations were identified, and the CHM network could be built. Extensive coverage of the known pathogenesis of acne could be found in the CHM network when incorporating CHM pharmacological mechanisms into the network. Anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial effects were commonly found in the CHM network, and CHMs with anti-androgen, anti-depressive and skin whitening effects were frequently used in combination.

CONCLUSIONS

The CHM combination patterns and core treatments for acne were disclosed in this study by applying network analysis to a CHM prescription database. These results may be beneficial for further bench or clinical studies when choosing target CHM.

Icariin inhibits TNF-α/IFN-γ induced inflammatory response via inhibition of the substance P and p38-MAPK signaling pathway in human keratinocytes

Pro-inflammatory cytokines play a crucial role in the etiology of atopic dermatitis. We demonstrated that Herba Epimedii has anti-inflammatory potential in an atopic dermatitis mouse model; however, limited research has been conducted on the anti-inflammatory effects and mechanism of icariin, the major active ingredient in Herba Epimedii, in human keratinocytes. In this study, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory potential and mechanisms of icariin in the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)/interferon-γ (IFN-γ)-induced inflammatory response in human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) by observing these cells in the presence or absence of icariin. We measured IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, MCP-1 and GRO-α production by ELISA; IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and tachykinin receptor 1 (TACR1) mRNA expression by real-time PCR; and P38-MAPK, P-ERK and P-JNK signaling expression by western blot in TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated HaCaT cells before and after icariin treatment. The expression of TNF-α-R1 and IFN-γ-R1 during the stimulation of the cell models was also evaluated before and after icariin treatment. We investigated the effect of icariin on these pro-inflammatory cytokines and detected whether this effect occurred via the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal transduction pathways. We further specifically inhibited the activity of two kinases with 20μM SB203580 (a p38 kinase inhibitor) and 50μM PD98059 (an ERK1/2 kinase inhibitor) to determine the roles of the two signal pathways involved in the inflammatory response. We found that icariin inhibited TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, and MCP-1 production in a dose-dependent manner; meanwhile, the icariin treatment inhibited the gene expression of IL-8, IL-1β, ICAM-1 and TACR1 in HaCaT cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Icariin treatment resulted in a reduced expression of p-P38 and p-ERK signal activation induced by TNF-α/IFN-γ; however, only SB203580, the p38 alpha/beta inhibitor, inhibited the secretion of inflammatory cytokines induced by TNF-α/IFN-γ in cultured HaCaT cells. The differential expression of TNF-α-R1 and IFN-γ-R1 was also observed after the stimulation of TNF-α/IFN-γ, which was significantly normalized after the icariin treatment. Collectively, we illustrated the anti-inflammatory property of icariin in human keratinocytes. These effects were mediated, at least partially, via the inhibition of substance P and the p38-MAPK signaling pathway, as well as by the regulation of the TNF-α-R1 and IFN-γ-R1 signals.

Apoptosis of AGS human gastric adenocarcinoma cells by methanolic extract of Dictamnus

BACKGROUND

The root bark of Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz has traditionally been used in East Asia to treat skin diseases such as eczema, atopic dermatitis, and psoriasis. However, it has also been reported to exhibit an anti-proliferative effect on cancer cells.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the anti-cancer effects of a methanol extract of Dictamnus dasycarpus root bark (MEDD) on AGS cells (a human gastric adenocarcinoma cell-line).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium assay, a caspase activity assay, cell cycle analysis, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) measurements, and western blotting were used to investigate the anti-cancer effects of MEDD on AGS cells.

RESULTS

Treatment with MEDD significantly and concentration-dependently inhibited AGS cell growth. MEDD treatment in AGS cells led to increased accumulation of apoptotic sub-G1 phase cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Also, MEDD reduced the expressions of pro-caspase-3, -8 and -9, and increased the active form of caspase-3. Furthermore, subsequent Western blotting revealed elevated levels of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase protein. MEDD treatment reduced levels of MMP and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL proteins. Pretreatment with SB203580 (a specific inhibitor of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases), SP600125 (a potent inhibitor of C-Jun N-terminal kinases), or PD98059 (a potent inhibitor of extracellular signal-regulated kinases) did not modify the effects of MEDD treatment. However, pretreatment with LY294002 (a specific inhibitor of Akt) significantly enhanced MEDD-induced cell death.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that MEDD-mediated cell death is associated with the intrinsic apoptotic pathway and that inhibition of Akt signaling contributes to apoptosis induction by MEDD.

Medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Dictamnus (Rutaceae)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Seven species from the genus Dictamnus are distributed throughout Europe and North Asia and only two species grow in China. One is Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz., which could be found in many areas of China and has been recorded in Chinese Pharmacopoeia. The other is Dictamnus angustifolius G. Don ex Sweet, which is only present in Xinjiang province and has been used as an alternative for Dictamnus dasycarpus in the local for the treatment of rheumatism, bleeding, itching, jaundice, chronic hepatitis and skin diseases. The present paper reviewed the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of the genus Dictamnus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information on the Dictamnus species was collected from classic books about Chinese herbal medicine and globally accepted scientific databases including PubMed, Elsevier, ASC, Scopus, Google Scholar, Web of Science, CNKI and others.

RESULTS

About 170 chemical compounds, which include quinoline alkaloids, limonoids, sesquiterpenes, coumarins, flavonoids and steroids, have been isolated from the genus Dictamnus. The characteristic and active constituents of Dictamnus species are considered to be quinoline alkaloids and limonoids, which exhibited a broad spectrum of biological activities such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammation, anti-microbe, anti-platelet-aggregation, vascular-relaxation, anti-insect, anti-HIV, anti-allergy and neuroprotection. Moreover, quinoline alkaloids and limonoids could be used as quality control markers to distinguish different species from the genus Dictamnus. However, there were also some reports on the toxic hepatitis and phototoxic effect of Dictamnus species, and the related research needs to be further studied.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we summarized the chemical constituents, pharmacology, quality control and toxicology of the species from genus Dictamnus. Phytochemical investigations indicated that quinoline alkaloids and limonoids were the major bioactive components with potential cytotoxic, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-platelet-aggregation and vascular relaxing activities. These two kinds of compounds have attracted great interests in the past few years and may have great potential to be new drug lead compounds.

Autophagic Cell Death by Poncirus trifoliata Rafin., a Traditional Oriental Medicine, in Human Oral Cancer HSC-4 Cells

Poncirus trifoliata Rafin. has long been used as anti-inflammatory and antiallergic agent to treat gastrointestinal disorders and pulmonary diseases such as indigestion, constipation, chest fullness, chest pain, bronchitis, and sputum in Korea. P. trifoliata extract has recently been reported to possess anticancer properties; however, its mechanisms of action remain unclear. In this study, its antiproliferative effects and possible mechanisms were investigated in HSC-4 cells. The methanol extract of P. trifoliata (MEPT) significantly decreased the proliferation of HSC-4 cells (inhibitory concentration (IC)₅₀ = 142.7 μg/mL) in a dose-dependent manner. While there were no significant changes observed upon cell cycle analysis and ANNEXIN V and 7-AAD double staining in the MEPT-treated groups, the intensity of acidic vesicular organelle (AVO) staining and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain (LC) 3-II protein expression increased in response to MEPT treatment. Furthermore, 3-methyladenine (3-MA, autophagy inhibitor) effectively blocked the MEPT-induced cytotoxicity of HSC-4 cells and triggered the activation of p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) proteins. Taken together, our results indicate that MEPT is a potent autophagy agonist in oral cancer cells with antitumor therapeutic potential that acts through the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway.