Medicinal plants of Guinea-Bissau: Therapeutic applications, ethnic diversity and knowledge transfer

Phytochemical and bioactive potentials of African Annonaceae species

This review aims to gather available information on the medicinal, nutritional, and bioactive profiles of Annonaceae species in the African continent, sponsoring their use worldwide and mainly in African communities, where access to food and medicines for basic health care is scarce. >60 medicinal taxa were compiled, belonging to 22 genera, namely Annickia, Annona, Anonidium, Artabotrys, Cleistochlamys, Cleistopholis, Dennettia, Duguetia, Greenwayodendron, Hexalobus, Isolona, Lettowianthus, Monanthotaxis, Monodora, Neostenanthera, Polyceratocarpus, Sphaerocoryne, Uvaria, Uvariastrum, Uvariodendron, Uvariopsis and Xylopia; the most diverse and economically important genera were the genera Annona, Uvaria and Xylopia with 7 species each. Annonaceae species hold a valuable nutritional profile, rich in proteins, fibers, and minerals, being also good sources of a wide range of bioactive compounds of high biological relevance. These compounds are especially important in developing countries, where most of these species are available for direct use as food and/or medicines by the most deprived populations.

A new sesquiterpene, prosoterpene, from Prosopis africana (Guill. & Perr.) Taub

A new sesquiterpene (Prosoterpene, 1) and eleven reported compounds (2-12) of several classes, such as flavonoids, alkaloids, phenolic acids, and long-chain alcohols, were isolated from the BuOH extract of Prosopis africana (Guill. & Perr.) Taub. Compounds 2-10 were reported for the first time from this plant. Isomers 11 and 12 were separated for the first time. Extensive spectroscopic techniques and literature comparisons were used to characterise their structures. Furthermore, compounds 3, 5-8, and 10-12 were performed for anti-glycation and cytotoxicity activities. Compound 3 (quercetin-3-O-α-L-rhamnoside) exhibited moderate anti-glycation activity. All tested compounds were non-cytotoxic against MCF-7 (breast cancer), NCI-H460 (lung cancer), Hela (cervical cancer), and BJ (normal human fibroblast) cell lines.

Medical Ethnobotany of the Bissau-Guinean Community of Migrants Living in Northern Italy and Comparison with the Ethnopharmacology of Guinea-Bissau

This study compares the knowledge of medicinal plants of Bissau-Guinean migrants now established in Italy with the ethnopharmacology still present in their country of origin. We also investigated how traditional ethnobotanical knowledge is changing following the phenomenon of migration from Africa to Europe. The ethnobotanical data were collected during 2017-2018, by interviewing 49 informants belonging to 8 ethnic groups, living in 8 provinces of northern Italy. The final inventory of botanical taxa included 81 species belonging to 34 families, with Fabaceae and Malvaceae the most represented, followed by Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae, Combretaceae, and Solanaceae. Plant remedies were used to treat 21 ailment categories, such as fever, internal infections, intestinal and respiratory problems, and pains. The traditional ethnobotanical knowledge of Bissau-Guinean migrants in Italy was associated with gender, with women showing the highest knowledge. In addition, a negative relationship was observed between the maintenance of this knowledge and the number of years migrants have spent in Italy. Overall, a loss of knowledge was observed in the less numerous ethnic groups. However, traditional preparations based on plants from the country of origin are in general well preserved to maintain a good state of health. Our work could help in transferring to the next generation the cultural heritage of Bissau-Guinean people permanently moved to European Countries.

Diversity and biological activities of medicinal plants of Santiago island (Cabo Verde)

Plants continue to constitute key elements of medical practice in West African countries. The Cabo Verde archipelago hosts a great diversity of medicinal plants and local markets are considered important sites for trading plants harvested by rural communities. This study has two main goals: (i) to assess the medicinal uses of native species in Santiago, the biggest island of the archipelago, and (ii) to evaluate the antioxidant, antimicrobial and antidiabetic/antihyperglycemic activities of two native trees (Tamarix senegalensis and Sideroxylon marginatum) used in traditional medicine and traded in local markets. Our results revealed that on Santiago Island, 24 native plants are used in traditional medicine. The main uses of these species (e.g., forage, timber, food and fibres), their medicinal applications, the plant parts used, their mode of administration and conservation status are presented here for the first time. Moreover, the pharmacological characterization of two native tree species revealed that hydroethanolic extracts were richer in phenolic compounds and more active than their aqueous counterparts. All the studied extracts revealed significant antioxidant properties (DPPH and FRAP assays) and were generally moderately active against Gram-positive bacteria. All the extracts inhibited the activities of the carbohydrate digestive enzymes α-glucosidase and α-amylase in a dose-dependent manner. For α-glucosidase, the detected inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ values from 2.0 ± 0.2 μg/mL to 9.9 ± 1.2 μg/mL) was significantly higher than that of acarbose, suggesting that extracts of both species can delay glucose absorption, thereby assisting in slowing down the progression of diabetes. Our findings highlight the crucial importance that medicinal plants have for the Cabo Verdean population, while also raising awareness on the need for sustainable use and conservation of native flora, and of tree species traded in local markets in particular.

Exploring Knowledge about Fang Traditional Medicine: An Informal Health Seeking Behaviour for Medical or Cultural Afflictions in Equatorial Guinea

This study explores a range of informal health-seeking behaviors, including the use of Fang Traditional Medicine (FTM) for medical or cultural afflictions in Equatorial Guinea (EQ), the therapeutic methods used, the health problems handled, the learning process, traditional medicine user profiles and the social images of Fang Traditional Healers (FTHs). Ethnography was employed as a qualitative strategy using emic–etic approaches. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 45 individuals, including 6 community leaders, 19 tribal elders, 7 healthcare professionals, 11 FTHs and 2 relatives of traditional healers in 5 districts of EQ. FTM offers a cure for malaria and treatments for reproductive health issues, bone fractures and cultural illnesses. Several methods used to learn FTM are based on empirical observation, and without the need for traditional schooling, unlike with Western medical professionals: for example, watching a family member, or the spirits or ancestors, can reveal healing knowledge. Materials from forests, including tree barks and plants, and rituals are used to keep Fang populations healthy; in addition, two rituals known as “osuiñ” and “etoak” (infusions of tree barks with the blood of sacrificed animals) are the most commonly used treatments. In addition, elders and women are the most active consumers of FTM. FTM plays a relevant role in curing medical and cultural afflictions in Fang communities. The informal health-seeking behavior among the Fang community is conditioned by the explanation model of illness.

Antimalarial and Cytotoxic Activity of Native Plants Used in Cabo Verde Traditional Medicine

Medicinal plants have historically been a source of drugs in multiple applications, including the treatment of malaria infections. The Cabo Verde archipelago harbors a rich diversity of native plants, most of which are used for medicinal purposes. The present study investigated the in vitro antiplasmodial activities of four native plants from Cabo Verde (i.e., Artemisia gorgonum, Lavandula rotundifolia, Sideroxylon marginatum, and Tamarix senegalensis). Traditional preparations of these medicinal plants, namely aqueous extracts (infusions) and ethanolic extracts, were tested against both chloroquine-sensitive (3D7) and chloroquine-resistant (Dd2) Plasmodium falciparum strains using the SYBR Green detection method. The in vitro cytotoxicity was evaluated in Caco-2 and PLP2 cells using a sulforhodamine B colorimetric assay. An ethanolic extract of A. gorgonum and infusions of T. senegalensis exhibited high antiplasmodial activities (EC₅₀ < 5 μg/mL) without cytotoxicity (GI₅₀ > 400 μg/mL). Extracts of L. rotundifolia and S. marginatum exhibited moderate activities, with EC₅₀ values ranging from 10-30 μg/mL. The A. gorgonum ethanolic extract showed activity toward early ring stages, and parasites treated with the T. senegalensis infusions progressed to the early trophozoite stage, although did not develop further to the late trophozoite or schizont stages. Antimalarial activities and the lack of cytotoxicity of the extracts are reported in the present study and support previous claims by traditional practitioners for the use of these plants against malaria while suggesting their ethnopharmacological usefulness as future antimalarials.

Allophylus africanus Stem Bark Extract Modulates the Mitochondrial Apoptotic Pathway in Human Stomach Cancer Cells

The present work aimed to detail the mechanisms elicited by Allophylus africanus P. Beauv. stem bark extract in human stomach cancer cells and to identify the bioactives underlying the cytotoxicity. MTT reduction and LDH leakage assays allowed characterizing the cytotoxic effects in AGS cells, which were further detailed by morphological analysis using phalloidin and Hoechst 33258. Proapoptotic mechanisms were elucidated through a mitochondrial membrane potential assay and by assessing the impact upon the activity of caspase-9 and -3. The extract displayed selective cytotoxicity against AGS cells. The absence of plasma membrane permeabilization, along with apoptotic body formation, suggested that pro-apoptotic effects triggered cell death. Intrinsic apoptosis pathway activation was verified, as mitochondrial membrane potential decrease and activation of caspase-9 and -3 were observed. HPLC-DAD profiling enabled the identification of two apigenin-di-C-glycosides, vicenin-2 (1) and apigenin-6-C-hexoside-8-C-pentoside (3), as well as three mono-C-glycosides-O-glycosylated derivatives, apigenin-7-O-hexoside-8-C-hexoside (2), apigenin-8-C-(2-rhamnosyl)hexoside (4) and apigenin-6-C-(2-rhamnosyl)hexoside (5). Isovitexin-2″-O-rhamnoside (5) is the main constituent, accounting for nearly 40% of the total quantifiable flavonoid content. Our results allowed us to establish the relationship between the presence of vicenin-2 and other apigenin derivatives with the contribution to the cytotoxic effects on the presented AGS cells. Our findings attest the anticancer potential of A. africanus stem bark against gastric adenocarcinoma, calling for studies to develop herbal-based products and/or the use of apigenin derivatives in chemotherapeutic drug development.

Anacardium occidentale Bark as an Antidiabetic Agent

Anacardium occidentale L. is used throughout the world to treat type 2 diabetes. In Portugal, a traditional herbal preparation made with stem bark of this species (AoBTHP) has been used for more than 30 years to treat this pathology. The AoBTHP was standardized on total phenolic content, and its hypoglycemic activity was assessed using db/db mice (n = 26) for 92 days. Three doses (40.2, 71.5, and 127.0 mg/kg/day, per os) were tested, and glibenclamide (5 mg/kg/day) was used as positive control. During the study, glycemia was measured under non-fasting or fasting states. In sequence, thin-layer chromatography bioautographic assays were used for the detection of possible alpha- and beta-glucosidase inhibitors. A significant hypoglycemic effect in fasting glycemia in days 31 and 57 was observed with the three tested doses. The 71.5 mg/kg and 127.0 mg/kg AoBTHPs significantly reduced non-fasting glycemia on day 24. The highest dose showed the most significant hypoglycemic effect. Gallic acid was identified as the major alpha- and beta-glucosidase inhibitor. The 127 mg/kg/day AoBTHP dose showed a greater glucose-lowering effect than glibenclamide. For the first time, a standardized AoBTHP was tested using an in vivo diabetes model, and its usage was preclinically validated for type 2 diabetes treatment. The hypoglycemic activity of an AoBTHP can be related to the presence of alpha- and beta-glucosidase inhibitors, such as gallic acid, but other mechanisms can also be involved.

Evaluation of the Polyphenolic Composition and Bioactivities of Three Native Cabo Verde Medicinal Plants

The use of medicinal plants in a variety of health conditions remains essential for the discovery of new treatments. The present study aimed to investigate the bioactive properties of three native plants from Cabo Verde Islands, namely Artemisia gorgonum Webb, Sideroxylon marginatum (Decne. ex Webb) Cout., and Tamarix senegalensis DC., contributing to the characterization of less-known medicinal plants and their potential benefits for human health. Known compounds, such as kaempferol, quercetin, caffeyolquinic, and apigenin derivatives, among others, were detected in the plant species under study. Overall, all species demonstrated good antioxidant capacity, especially the ethanolic extracts of A. gorgonum (EC50 = 0.149 mg/mL) in TBARS assay. Moreover, the ethanolic extracts of the studied plants showed cytotoxic properties against tumor cells, and again the A. gorgonum extract proved to be the most effective in inhibiting tumor growth, mainly in the CaCO₂ (GI50 = 17.3 μg/mL) and AGS (GI50 = 18.2 μg/mL) cell lines. Only the ethanolic extracts of T. senegalensis and S. marginatum demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity, albeit weak (EC50 = 35 and 43 μg/mL, respectively). The present study contributed to increased knowledge about the bioactive properties of these plants commonly used in traditional medicine, some of which was discussed for the first time, opening new perspectives for their use in a wider range of health conditions, especially in African countries, where access to modern health care is more limited.

An in-depth look into a well-known herbal drug: Fingerprinting, isolation, identification, and content estimation of saponins in different Strophanthus seeds

Seeds of Strophanthus species are known as a source of rapid-acting cardenolides. These water-soluble glycosides are listed as the sole critical constituents of this raw herbal drug. A non-standard cardioprotective medication with ouabain-containing oral remedies has become popular in Europe as a result of the withdrawal of corresponding registered drugs from the market. However, the bioequivalence of pure ouabain solutions, tinctures, and home-made extracts from Strophanthus seeds is unknown. Thus, this study aimed to update the information on the composition of Strophanthus seeds used for this purpose. The distribution of two main saponins and about 90 previously unreported compounds, tentatively identified as saponins in eleven Strophanthus species, was systematically evaluated by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS) and -MS/MS. Seeds of S. gratus were selected to isolate the dominant unreported triterpenoids, bidesmosides of echinocystic and oleanolic acid. Their structures were established by HRMS, MS/MS, as well as by NMR techniques. The total saponin content, estimated by UHPLC-MS, was up to 1%. The detected saponins could influence the peroral bioavailability of hardly absorbable Strophanthus cardenolides and exhibit their own activity. This finding may be relevant when Strophanthus preparations (containing both saponins and cardiac glycosides) are used, particularly when homemade preparations are administered.

Ethnopharmacological Study of Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases and Their Associated Risk Factors in sub-Saharan Africa

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of global mortality, including deaths arising from non-communicable diseases in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Consequently, this study aimed to provide details of medicinal plants (MPs) employed in SSA for the treatment of CVDs and their related risk factors to open new avenues for the discovery of novel drugs. The extensive ethnopharmacological literature survey of these MPs in 41 SSA countries was based on studies from 1982 to 2021. It revealed 1,085 MPs belonging to 218 botanical families, with Fabaceae (9.61%), Asteraceae (6.77%), Apocynaceae (3.93%), Lamiaceae (3.75%), and Rubiaceae (3.66%) being the most represented. Meanwhile, Allium sativum L., Persea americana Mill., Moringa oleifera Lam., Mangifera indica L., and Allium cepa L. are the five most utilised plant species. The preferred plant parts include the leaves (36%), roots (21%), barks (14%), fruits (7%), and seeds (5%), which are mostly prepared by decoction. Benin, Mauritius, Nigeria, South Africa, and Togo had the highest reported use while most of the investigations were on diabetes and hypertension. Despite the nutraceutical advantages of some of these MPs, their general toxicity potential calls for caution in their human long-term use. Overall, the study established the need for governments of SSA countries to validate the efficacy/safety of these MPs as well as provide affordable, accessible, and improved modern healthcare services.

Linking phytochemistry to traditional uses and pharmacology of an underexplored genus - Psydrax: a review

The genus Psydrax is one of the ethno-medicinally important genera of the Rubiaceae family which has only received a limited scientific attention, despite coming from a pharmacologically and phytochemically important plant family. The genus has found applications in ethnomedical management of diabetes, stomach disorders, inflammations, cardiovascular diseases, epilepsy, wounds, malaria and fever. To unveil knowledge gaps, stimulate research interest and unravel opportunities for drug discovery from the genus Psydrax, we have carried out an extensive review on its traditional applications, phytochemistry and pharmacology for the first time. Literature on these topics was obtained from Google Scholar, Pubmed and ScienceDirect journal articles published from 1788 to September, 2021. Only articles written in English were reviewed. While several species of Pysdrax used in traditional medicine have not been chemically explored for drug discovery, over a hundred secondary metabolites have so far been identified in few species of the genus, and majority of these chemotaxonomic markers are iridoids. Bioactive extracts and some isolated constituents of Psydrax species have shown various in vitro and in vivo pharmacological properties including anti-hyperglycemia, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant and antimicrobial, and thus, support some of the ethnomedical uses of the plants. For an evidence-informed application of the genus, Psydrax, in traditional medicine, more ethnobotanical surveys, elaborate in vivo pharmacological assays, in-depth toxicity and holistic phytochemical studies are required to fully exploit more species of the genus prior to future clinical studies. Following documented traditional uses of Psydrax species, the deliberate cultivation of medicinal plants under this genus is recommended for sustainability in medicinal plant utilization.

Local Knowledge and Use of Medicinal Plants in a Rural Community in the Agreste of Paraíba, Northeast Brazil

The use of medicinal plants is an important source of therapeutic resources in rural communities and the wide versatility of some species may attract interest for prospecting studies. The aim of this study was to record and analyze local knowledge and the use of medicinal plants in the rural community of Malícia, municipality of Araçagi, Paraíba State, Northeastern Brazil, applying quantitative methods to calculate the Relative Importance (RI) and the Informant Consensus Factor (ICF). Semistructured interviews were conducted with 46 heads of households. The interviews addressed questions about the used parts of the plants, therapeutic indications, and form of use. Therapeutic indications were classified into categories of body systems. The Relative Importance Index (RI) was calculated to verify the species versatility, and the Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) was calculated to verify the consensus of use among informants regarding the body systems. A total of 111 plant species were recorded, inside 101 genera and 47 families. Fabaceae (16 spp.), Lamiaceae, and Myrtaceae (each one with 7 spp.) were the most representative families. Mentha arvensis, Aloe vera, and Myracrodruon urundeuva had the highest RI. A high consensus of use was observed among the informants for neoplasms, nervous system diseases, and infectious and parasitic diseases. Leaves were the part most cited for medicinal use. Regarding the method of preparation, the decoction and the oral administration route stood out. Neoplasms and respiratory system diseases had the highest ICF values. The results indicate a diversified knowledge of the local pharmacopeia and the need for in-depth studies to corroborate the effectiveness of medicinal plants and to understand the dynamics of local knowledge.

Nutritional and Functional Properties of Wild Leafy Vegetables for Improving Food Security in Southern Angola

In Southern Angola, numerous non-woody forest products are sold at local markets, namely in Lubango (Huíla Province). Such is the case of herbaceous wild plants, locally known as lombi, which are sold fresh throughout the year and cooked as a vegetable. Although these wild leafy vegetables are commercialized and widely used in local food, there is still a lack of scientific knowledge about their properties. Thus, this study aimed to identify and characterize the species sold, and to determine their nutritional and functional properties. Our results revealed that three species—Amaranthus hybridus, Bidens pilosa, and Galinsoga parviflora—are usually sold at Lubango markets and consumed by local populations. These are annual exotic plants, native to Southern America, and usually occur spontaneously in croplands or disturbed areas, but can also be cultivated, particularly A. hybridus. Physico-chemical analyses of lombi species and mixtures sold at the markets included measurements of moisture, protein, lipid, and mineral content, as well as total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and levels of heavy metal contaminants. The results revealed that lombi contain a significant amount of protein (20–28 g/100 g, dry basis), high values of macronutrients and micronutrients, as well as of phenolic compounds (10–40 mg GAE/g) and a good antioxidant capacity. Given the availability of lombi throughout the year, our study demonstrated the importance of wild edible plants in Angola, both as a valuable natural resources and as a complementary food sources, as well as additional sources of income for many families.

Antioxidant and cytotoxicity activities of δ-tocotrienol from the seeds of Allophylus africanus

Chemical investigation of Allophylus africanus P. Beauv fruits led to the isolation of a new δ-tocotrienol, 3α-hydroxy-δ-tocotrienol (1) together with eight known compounds (2-9). Compound (1) was allylated (1a) and prenylated (1 b and 1c) to give three new semi-synthesized derivatives which were fully characterized as: 6-O-allyl-3α-hydroxy-δ-tocotrienol (1a), 6-O-prenyl-3α-hydroxy-δ-tocotrienol (1 b) and 6-O,5-C-diprenyl-3α-hydroxy-δ-tocotrienol (1c). The structures of compounds were established using comprehensive spectroscopic analysis including UV, MS, 1 D NMR, 2 D NMR and by comparison with the corresponding literature data. Compound (1) and its semi-synthetic derivatives (1a-c) were tested for their antioxydant activity using DPPH radical scavenging assay and also for their cytotoxicity using human cervix carcinoma KB-3-1 cell lines. The results showed that compound (1) exhibited antioxidant activity with an IC₅₀ value of 0.25 μM compared to the reference control trolox (26 µM); and good cytotoxic activity with IC₅₀ values of 97 μM compared to the reference (+)-griseofulvin (IC₅₀ between17-21 μM).

Developing an Evidence-Based Coexistence Strategy to Promote Human and Wildlife Health in a Biodiverse Agroforest Landscape

Agroforest mosaics represent one of the most extensive human-impacted terrestrial systems worldwide and play an increasingly critical role in wildlife conservation. In such dynamic shared landscapes, coexistence can be compromised if people view wildlife as a source of infectious disease. A cross-disciplinary One Health knowledge base can help to identify evolving proponents and threats to sustainable coexistence and establish long-term project goals. Building on an existing knowledge base of human–wildlife interactions at Cantanhez National Park (NP), Guinea-Bissau, we developed a causal pathway Theory-of-Change approach in response to a newly identified disease threat of leprosy in the Critically Endangered western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus). The goals of our project are to improve knowledge and surveillance of leprosy in humans and wildlife and increase capacity to manage human–wildlife interactions. We describe the core project activities that aim to (1) quantify space use by chimpanzees across Cantanhez NP and determine the distribution of leprosy in chimpanzees; (2) understand the health system and local perceptions of disease; and (3) identify fine-scale risk sites through participatory mapping of resources shared by humans and chimpanzees across target villages. We discuss the development of a biodiversity and health monitoring programme, an evidence-based One Health campaign, and a One Health environmental management plan that incorporates the sharing of space and resources, and the disease implications of human–non-human great ape interactions. We demonstrate the importance of multi-stakeholder engagement, and the development of strategy that fully considers interactions between people, wildlife, and the environment.

Ethnopharmacological uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel. (Combretaceae)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel. (Combretaceae), commonly known as "Gubeish" in Sudan, is a small shrub abundant in semi-desert areas of the Sudano-Sahelian zone. It is widely used in African traditional medicine as a tonic and for the treatment of many complications such as respiratory and gastrointestinal disorders, microbial and parasitic infections.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The aim of this review is to critically analyze the reports on the traditional uses, ethnopharmacological studies, chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of G. senegalensis.

METHODS

Scientific information on G. senegalensis was retrieved from the online bibliographic databases (e.g. like MEDLINE/PubMed, SciFinder, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus, Elsevier, SpringerLink). Other scientific information was acquired from secondary resources including books and proceedings, library catalogs, and dissertations.

RESULTS

G. senegalensis is reported to be widely used traditionally for the treatment of various diseases in many African countries. Most of these studies are reported from Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan. Phytochemical studies have revealed the presence of a total of 46 compounds belonging to major phytochemical classes namely; phenolic compounds, alkaloids, and triterpenes. Among them, galloylquinic acid derivatives and flavonoids are the most frequently reported constituents. The extracts and compounds have shown diverse biological activities including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiprotozoal activities and activities against gastrointestinal and respiratory disorders.

CONCLUSION

G. senegalensis is widely used in most African traditional medicine systems and used among African people for the treatment of many diseases. Although there are many reports on its biological activities, most of these studies are based on in vitro systems and only very few are based on in vivo systems. Also, some of these pharmacological data are insufficient and lack essential parameters such as proper positive and negative controls, and calculating the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values. From these studies, it is difficult to assess the future clinical potential of this plant without detailed studies in animal models or in humans. Similarly, there are not many reports on the action mechanism of the extracts and compounds. Future studies should focus to explore the therapeutic potential of G. senegalensis with advance experimental protocols and cutting-edge technologies.

Countrywide Survey of Plants Used for Liver Disease Management by Traditional Healers in Burkina Faso

Liver disease is highly prevalent in Africa, especially in the western African country Burkina Faso, due to the presence of multiple biological and chemical aggressors of the liver. Furthermore, diagnosis and appropriate care for liver disease are uneven and usually insufficient. This drives local communities to turn to folk medicine based on medicinal plants from healers. Small scale, ethnopharmacological studies on reputed hepatoprotective plants have been carried out in defined regions worldwide, but so far, no study has been carried out on a countrywide scale. Therefore, we have explored traditional healers’ practices in all thirteen regions of Burkina Faso. We interviewed 575 healers and we compiled a database with 2,006 plant entries. Here, we report results on liver nosology, liver pathologies, medicinal plants used for liver disease, and traditional practices through the lens of Burkinabe healers. Our goal was to give a full inventory of medicinal plants used to treat liver disease and to determine if there was consensus on the use of specific plants for specific symptoms. Analysis of the medicinal plants in use across the whole country provides local communities with a wider evidence base to determine which plants may be more effective in treating liver disease and could provide the scientific community, with a shortlist of plants suitable for chemical and pharmacological investigation to validate the plants’ therapeutic role.

Cabo Verde's Poaceae Flora: A Reservoir of Crop Wild Relatives Diversity for Crop Improvement

Africa is home to important centers of origin and diversity of crop wild relatives (CWR), including many species adapted to adverse agroecological conditions, namely drought and poor soils. Plant genetic resources from Cabo Verde Islands have been poorly explored for their potential to supplement the genetic pool of cultivated species. In this paper we identify Cabo Verde's CWR from the Poaceae family and provide a checklist of priority CWR taxa, highlighting those of particular conservation concern and the areas which should be the focus of the most intensive conservation efforts in these islands. Our results revealed that Cabo Verde archipelago is an important center of CWR diversity of West African crop millets, namely fonio (e.g., white fonio, Digitaria exilis, and black fonio, Digitaria iburua) and other African millets [e.g., pearl millet (Cenchrus americanus = Pennisetum glaucum), teff millet (Eragrostis tef), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), barnyard millet (Echinochloa colona), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum), and foxtail millet (Setaria italica)], which represent a diverse group of cereal crops, and important components in agriculture and food security of this country. Also, hotspot areas of diversity for in situ conservation were identified in Cabo Verde, as well as several populations occurring under extreme habitats conditions that are well adapted to drylands and poor soils. The evaluation of their potential for new ecologically important adaptive characteristics associated with tolerance to abiotic stresses is discussed. The survey of international Germplasm Banks revealed that very few accessions from Cabo Verde are conserved, contributing to the loss of genetic diversity of plant genetic resources in this archipelago. Particularly, the diversity of millets and the associated indigenous knowledge are critical for the food security and cultural identity of many poor farmers in Cabo Verde.

Connaraceae: An updated overview of research and the pharmacological potential of 39 species

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

An interdisciplinary scientific investigation of biologically active agents is fundamental to search for natural substances with therapeutic action. This review collected the most relevant information on traditional knowledge related to the use of plants of the Connaraceae family. This work is the first to compile all the published ethnobotanical, chemical, pharmacological, and toxicological information about this important plant family.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Our objective was to provide the scientific community with an up-to-date overview of the pharmacological potential of Connaraceae species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We searched NCBI Pubmed Central, Google Scholar, Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO), ScienceDirect, SciFinder, and Scopus databases to review the research on ethnobotanical, chemical, pharmacognostical, pharmacological, and toxicological studies with Connaraceaes. Books that address the theme were also included.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The literature review indicated that 39 species of Connaraceaes have pharmacological potentiality. Ethnobotany reports listed 36 of the 39 species discussed. Pharmacognostical studies have been conducted with 23 species and isolates, and chemical compounds have been identified for only 15 species. At least one study has been published concerning the pharmacological activities for 20 of the 39 species analyzed. For Agelaea pentagyna, Cnestis ferruginea, Connars suberosus, and Rourea minor, pharmacological activity experiments were performed using isolated compounds, which have the highest current pharmacological potential. Studies employing a toxicological approach cover only 10 of the 39 Connaraceaes species. Thus, scientific community should conduct much more research for a broader understanding of this plant family.

Prosopis juliflora leave extracts induce cell death of MCF-7, HepG2, and LS-174T cancer cell lines

Prosopis juliflora (P. juliflora) is a widespread phreatophytic tree, which belongs to the Fabaceae family. The goal of the present study is to investigate the potential anti-cancer effect of P. juliflora leave extracts and to identify its chemical composition. For this purpose, MCF-7 (breast), HepG2 (liver), and LS-174T (colorectal) cancer cell lines were cultivated and incubated with various concentrations of P. juliflora leave extracts, and its impact on cell viability, proliferation, and cell cycle stages was investigated. P. juliflora leave extracts induced concentration-dependent cytotoxicity against all tested cancer cell lines. The calculated IC₅₀ was 18.17, 33.1 and 41.9 μg/ml for MCF-7, HePG2 and LS-174T, respectively. Detailed analysis revealed that the cytotoxic action of P. juliflora extracts was mainly via necrosis but not apoptosis. Moreover, DNA content flow cytometry analysis showed cell-specific anti-proliferative action and cell cycle stages arrest. In order to identify the anti-cancer constituents of P. juliflora, the ethyl extracts were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The major constituents identified in the ethyl extracts of P. juliflora leaves were hydroxymethyl-pyridine, nicotinamide, adenine, and poly-(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). In conclusion, P. juliflora ethyl acetate extracts have a potential anti-cancer effect against breast adenocarcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, and colorectal adenocarcinoma, and is enriched with anti-cancer constituents. See also Figure 1(Fig. 1).

A review of traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Indigofera

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Indigofera is the third-largest genus in the family of Fabaceae, with approximately 750 species. It is distributed across all tropical regions. Indigofera species are widely employed in traditional medicine all around the world, against many ailments. Thus, based on these medicinal properties, various investigations have been undertaken in order to appraise the pharmacological activities and the chemical composition of these species. A recent paper provides a summary of the phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Indigofera. Consequently, this review is a continuation of this previous study by updating some data and adding information about the phylogeny and traditional uses of the genus.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To provide an overview of the phylogeny, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity of the genus Indigofera, and to identify the remaining gaps and thus supply a basis for further investigations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A review of the literature was performed by consulting scientific databases such as 'ScienceDirect', 'PubMed', 'Google Scholar' and 'SpringerLink' and using the keyword Indigofera.

RESULTS

Over 60 Indigofera species are reported in traditional medicine. The uses depend on the country and the species, but similarities have been noticed. Indeed, treatments of gastrointestinal disorders, inflammatory conditions and pain, skin ailments, and respiratory and infectious diseases are recurring. Phytochemical studies have led to the identification of more than 200 compounds, notably flavonoids and terpenoids. Many pharmacological activities have been demonstrated, particularly antimicrobial, cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory activities, and thus allowed to assert most of the traditional uses of the genus. Some active compounds have been isolated and have shown remarkable therapeutic potential, like the alkaloid indirubin, which is currently being clinically trialed.

CONCLUSIONS

The data on the genus Indigofera are extensive, but gaps still remain. Indeed, some promising species have not been assessed for their phytochemistry and/or pharmacology and thus remain unexplored. Moreover, relatively few active compounds have been isolated and tested for their biological activity, and studies to explain their mechanism of action are nearly inexistent. Furthermore, some pharmacological studies have inappropriate methodologies that make the results difficult to interpret. Consequently, further in-depth and relevant research is required to supplement the knowledge on this wide-ranging genus and to confirm its reported therapeutic potential.

Anti-inflammatory properties of Xylopia aethiopica leaves: Interference with pro-inflammatory cytokines in THP-1-derived macrophages and flavonoid profiling

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ethnopharmacological surveys on Guinea-Bissauan flora reveal that several species are used to treat or ameliorate the symptomatology of conditions with an inflammatory background. As such, extracts obtained from a series of plants recorded in those surveys were screened for their anti-inflammatory properties, a hydroethanolic extract obtained from the leaves of Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich, (Annonaceae), used on the treatment of headache, muscular pain and rheumatic pain, scoring positively and being further investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In order to identify species with anti-inflammatory properties, extracts were screened for their ability to interfere with LPS-induced TNF-α levels. Since significant effects were recorded upon treatment with the extract of the leaves obtained from X. aethiopica, further assays were conducted to elucidate additional mechanisms underlying its anti-inflammatory potential. Since little is known on the chemical composition of the plant, we also aimed to characterise its phenolic profile.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Interference with cytokines was evaluated by ELISA assay, through the quantification of TNF-α and IL-6 levels in the culture medium collected from LPS-activated THP-1-derived-macrophages. Inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase was assessed based on the oxidation of linoleic acid to 13-hydroperoxylinoleic acid. Characterization of the phenolic profile was attained by HPLC-DAD.

RESULTS

Evaluation of TNF-α levels in LPS-challenged THP-1 macrophages evidenced a significant inhibition (>90%) upon treatment with the hydroethanolic extract obtained from X. aethiopica leaves at a concentration of 500 μg/mL. Additional anti-inflammatory effects were recorded, including a significant decrease on IL-6 levels at 250 and 500 μg/mL. The extract proved to be active towards 5-LOX, leading to significant inhibition at concentrations ranging from 16 to 250 μg/mL (IC₅₀ = 85 μg/mL). Phenolic profiling allowed the identification and quantitation of eight constituents, including caffeoylquinic acids (1-3), mono-O-glycosylated flavonols (5-8), and the mono-O-glycosyl flavone luteolin-7-O-glucoside (4). The main phenolic constituent, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (8), was found to significantly contribute to the anti-inflammatory effects, namely through the inhibition of 5-LOX. However, no effects on the decrease of TNF-α and IL-6 levels caused by this phenolic compound were found.

CONCLUSION

The anti-inflammatory effects of X. aethiopica leaves are demonstrated experimentally, thus substantiating its use in folk Medicine. Relevantly, the observed anti-inflammatory properties can stimulate further studies in order to fully unveil the therapeutic potential of the plant, namely as a source of phenolic compounds with a significant ability to interfere with conventional inflammatory targets.

Acute and subchronic oral toxicity assessments of Combretum micranthum (Combretaceae) in Wistar rats

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Acute and subchronic oral toxicity assessments of Combretum micranthum leaves extract were evaluated in Wistar rats of both sexes.

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In acute oral toxicity assessment, LD50 of Combretum micranthum leaves extract is greater than 5000 mg/kg.

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In subchronic oral toxicity assessment at doses of 500 and 1000 mg/kg/day for 28 days, No significant changes in food consumption, body weight gain, organ weights and in biochemical parameters.

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The level of PLT increased in female rats in the sub-chronic study but the immune system was not affected.

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No treatment related pathology was identified during histopathology.

Background

Combretum micranthum (CM) (Combretaceae) is widely used in traditional medicine throughout West Africa for the treatment of diabetes, hypertension, inflammation, malaria and liver ailments. In our recent research we demonstrated that CM has nephroprotective potentials in diabetes mellitus, hypertension and renal disorders. However, to the best of our knowledge, no systematic study concerning its toxicity profile has been reported.

Aim of the study

The study carried out to evaluates the potential toxicity of the hydroalcoholic extract from leaves of the CM, through the method of acute and sub-chronic oral administration in rats.

Materials and methods

During the acute toxicity study, male and female rats were orally administrated with CM extract at single doses of 5000 mg/kg (n = 5/group/sex). Abnormal behaviour, toxic symptoms, weight, and death were observed for 14 consecutive days to assess the acute toxicity. For sub-chronic toxicity study, the extract was administered orally at doses of 500 and 1000 mg/kg (n = 5/group/sex) daily to Wistar rats for 28 days. The general behaviour and body weight of the rats was observed daily. A biochemical, haematological, macroscopical and histopathological examinations of several organs were conducted at the end of the treatment period. The CM extract was subjected to Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometric examination in order to detect the presence or absence of cyanide toxic compounds.

Results

The absence of absorbance peaks between the 2220−2260 cm⁻¹ region of FT-IR spectrum of CM, indicating the absence of cyanide groups. This suggested that the CM extract may not contain toxic substances. During the acute toxicity test, no mortality or adverse effects were noted at the dose of 5000 mg/kg. In the subchronic study, the CM extract induced no mortality or treatment-related adverse effects with regard to body weight, general behaviour, relative organ weights, hematological, and biochemical parameters. Histopathological examination of vital organs showed normal architecture suggesting no morphological alterations.

Conclusion

The present study revealed that oral administration of CM extract for 28 days, at dosage up to 1000 mg/kg did not induce toxicological damage in rats. From acute toxicity study, the median lethal dose (LD₅₀) of the extract was estimated to be more than 5000 mg/kg.

Prosopis Plant Chemical Composition and Pharmacological Attributes: Targeting Clinical Studies from Preclinical Evidence

Members of the Prosopis genus are native to America, Africa and Asia, and have long been used in traditional medicine. The Prosopis species most commonly used for medicinal purposes are P. africana, P. alba, P. cineraria, P. farcta, P. glandulosa, P. juliflora, P. nigra, P. ruscifolia and P. spicigera, which are highly effective in asthma, birth/postpartum pains, callouses, conjunctivitis, diabetes, diarrhea, expectorant, fever, flu, lactation, liver infection, malaria, otitis, pains, pediculosis, rheumatism, scabies, skin inflammations, spasm, stomach ache, bladder and pancreas stone removal. Flour, syrup, and beverages from Prosopis pods have also been potentially used for foods and food supplement formulation in many regions of the world. In addition, various in vitro and in vivo studies have revealed interesting antiplasmodial, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic and wound healing effects. The phytochemical composition of Prosopis plants, namely their content of C-glycosyl flavones (such as schaftoside, isoschaftoside, vicenin II, vitexin and isovitexin) has been increasingly correlated with the observed biological effects. Thus, given the literature reports, Prosopis plants have positive impact on the human diet and general health. In this sense, the present review provides an in-depth overview of the literature data regarding Prosopis plants' chemical composition, pharmacological and food applications, covering from pre-clinical data to upcoming clinical studies.

Protective Effects of Acridocarpus smeathmannii (DC.) Guill. & Perr. Root Extract against Phenylhydrazine-Induced Haematotoxicity, Biochemical Changes, and Oxidative Stress in Rats

Several strategies for discovering drugs from unexplored natural products continue to strengthen research and development with current commercial evidence supporting their applications. We assessed the effects of the hydroethanolic extract of Acridocarpus smeathmannii root (HEASR) against phenylhydrazine (PHZ)-induced haematotoxicity, biochemical changes, and oxidative stress in male Wistar rats. Groups 1 and 2 controls received normal saline (10 mL/kg/day) and PHZ (60 mg/kg, day 4 and 5), respectively, via oral gavage. Groups 3, 4, and 5 were administered dexamethasone (DXM, 0.014 mg/kg/day, p.o.), HEASR1 (50 mg/kg/day, p.o.) and HEASR2 (200 mg/kg/day, p.o.), respectively. Groups 6, 7, and 8 received HEASR2 (200 mg/kg/day), DXM (0.014 mg/kg/day), or their combination, respectively, and further received PHZ (60 mg/kg/day) intervention on day 4 and 5 only. Treatments lasted for 7 days. Phenylhydrazine toxicity manifested as lowered haemoglobin, white blood cells, lymphocytes, red blood cells, and platelet levels by 45.86%, 53.47%, 75.69%, 46.89%, and 30.29%, respectively, in rats. This was accompanied by an increase in serum alanine (ALT; 108.25%) and aspartate (AST; 78.79%) aminotransferases, urea (84.36%), total cholesterol (81.55%), and triglycerides (123.42%) levels. Similarly, malondialdehyde levels and serum cyclooxygenase-2 activity were elevated (P < 0.05) in the rats liver and spleen, respectively. Just HEASR alone, or in combination with DXM, preserved haematological and biochemical parameters, cyclooxygenase-2 activity, and corticosterone levels during PHZ intoxication and restored renal histopathological alterations in rats. The HEASR was found to contain high flavonoid and phenolic phytochemicals and demonstrated better in vitro antioxidants inhibitory action.

Edible Leafy Vegetables from West Africa (Guinea-Bissau): Consumption, Trade and Food Potential

Wild Edible Plants are common in the diet of rural communities of sub-Saharan Africa. In Guinea-Bissau, West Africa, wild plant resources are widely used in human diet, but very few studies have addressed them. The aim of this study is to reveal: (1) the wild and semi-cultivated leafy vegetables consumed in Guinea-Bissau; and (2) the nutritional composition of those plants traded at the largest country market in Bissau. Our results revealed that 24 native or naturalized species with edible leaves are currently consumed by Guinea-Bissau population. Five of them were found at the market: dried leaves of Adansonia digitata, Bombax costatum and Sesamum radiatum, and fresh leaves and shoots of Amaranthus hybridus and Hibiscus sabdariffa. The analysis of the nutritional properties revealed that leaves contain a significant amount of protein (10.1–21.0 g/100 g, dry basis), high values of macronutrients and micronutrients, as well as of phenolic compounds (13.1–40.3 mg GAE/g) and a considerable antioxidant capacity (DPPH 111.5–681.9 mg Eq Trolox). Although price and availability vary among the leafy vegetables analyzed, these traditional foods appear to be a good dietary component that can contribute to food security in Guinea-Bissau and in other West African countries, as these species are widely distributed in this region.

Flavonoid Composition of Salacia senegalensis (Lam.) DC. Leaves, Evaluation of Antidermatophytic Effects, and Potential Amelioration of the Associated Inflammatory Response

Predominantly spread in West Tropical Africa, the shrub Salacia senegalensis (Lam.) DC. is known because of its medicinal properties, the leaves being used in the treatment of skin diseases. Prompted by the ethnomedicinal use, a hydroethanolic extract obtained from the leaves of the plant was screened against a panel of microbial strains, the majority of which involved in superficial infections. The extract was found to be active against the dermatophytes Trichophyton rubrum and Epidermophyton floccosum. Notable results were also recorded regarding the attenuation of the inflammatory response, namely the inhibitory effects observed against soybean 5-lipoxygenase (IC₅₀ = 71.14 μg mL^-1), no interference being recorded in the cellular viability of RAW 264.7 macrophages and NO levels. Relevantly, the extract did not lead to detrimental effects against the keratinocyte cell line HaCaT, at concentrations displaying antidermatophytic and anti-inflammatory effects. Flavonoid profiling of S. senegalensis leaves was achieved for the first time, allowing the identification and quantitation of myricitrin, three 3-O-substituted quercetin derivatives, and three other flavonoid derivatives, which may contribute, at least partially, to the observed antidermatophytic and anti-inflammatory effects. In the current study, the plant S. senegalensis is assessed concerning its antidermatophytic and anti-inflammatory properties.

Conservation and sustainable use of the medicinal Leguminosae plants from Angola

Leguminosae is an economically important family that contains a large number of medicinal plants, many of which are widely used in African traditional medicine. Angola holds a great socio-cultural diversity and is one of the richest floristic regions of the world, with over 900 native Leguminosae species. This study is the first to assess the medicinal uses of the legumes in Angola and provides new data to promote the conservation and the sustainable use of these unique resources. We document the ethnobotanical knowledge on Angola by reviewing the most important herbarium collections and literature, complemented by recent field surveys. Our results revealed that 127 native legume species have medicinal uses and 65% of them have other important uses by local populations. The species with most medicinal applications are Erythrina abyssinica, Bauhinia thonningii and Pterocarpus angolensis. The rich flora found in Angola suggests an enormous potential for discovery of new drugs with therapeutic value. However, the overexploitation and the indiscriminate collection of legumes for multiple uses such as forage, food, timber and medical uses, increases the threats upon the native vegetation. Efforts to assess the conservation status of these species are urgently needed, and future actions should promote the sustainable use of medicinal plants in Angola together with the implementation of conservation strategies.

Acridocarpus Smeathmannii (DC.) Guill. & Perr. Root enhanced reproductive behavior and sexual function in male wistar rats: Biochemical and pharmacological mechanisms

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Novel therapeutic opportunities from medicinal agents continue to arouse scientific interest in recent times. Still, there is a dearth of information as regards experimental evidence generated from medicinal plants that would yield pharmacological agents for the treatment of erectile dysfunction. Acridocarpus Smeathmannii (DC.) Guill. & Perr. Root (ASR) has a long history as an aphrodisiac in African traditional medicine. Thus, this study investigated the reproductive potentials and associated biochemical mechanisms of its hydroethanolic extract (HEASR) in male Wistar rats. Also, the bioactive compounds were identified.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty-four male albino rats (180 ± 20 g) were divided into nine groups of six rats/group. Control, group 1 received normal saline (10 mL/kg). Groups 2-6 rats were administered sildenafil (1.43 mg/kg/day), mesterolone (0.36 mg/kg/day), doxazocin (0.03 mg/kg/day), HEASR1 (50 mg/kg/day) and HEASR2 (200 mg/kg/day) respectively. Others received co-administration of HEASR2 with standard drugs. Treatment lasted for 28 days via oral gavage.

RESULTS

An acute oral toxicity of HEASR up to 2 g/kg produced no mortality in mice p.o. while the median lethal dose was estimated to be 810 mg/kg i.p. HEASR2 administration or in combination with sildenafil, mesterolone and doxazocin increased mounting frequencies on day 28 by 77.44%, 122.65%, 148.5% and 93.88% and sperm counts by 38.29%, 55.21%, 42.48%, and 48.98% respectively in treated rats. HEASR2 + sildenafil elevated testosterone and follicle stimulating hormone levels by 36.33% and 24.55% while HEASR2 + doxazocin elevated luteinizing hormone levels by 97.44% in rats. HEASR modulated prostate-specific antigen and malondialdehyde levels respectively. Reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activities were raised in five selected organs. Serum nitric oxide but not cyclooxygenase-2 or tumor necrosis factor-α levels was moderately improved in rats.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the results obtained demonstrated the potential of HEASR as a male reproductive enhancer, thus justify its folklore applications. Further, octadecanoic acid ethyl ester was the most abundant bioactive component present.

Subacute and subchronic oral toxicity assessments of Acridocarpus smeathmannii (DC.) Guill. & Perr. root in Wistar rats

Recent adverse herb reactions have stimulated interest documenting the safety profile of medicinal agents. Thus, subacute and subchronic oral toxicity of the hydroethanolic extract of Acridocarpus smeathmannii root (HEASR) in Wistar rats was investigated. In the 28 and 90-day subacute and subchronic toxicity tests, sixty-four rats (n = male: female = 1:1 = 32) were divided into four of eight/group and ninety-six (n = male: female = 1:1 = 48) into twelve/group respectively. Distilled water (10 mL/kg) or HEASR4, HEASR5 and HEASR6 (250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg/day) respectively were administered via oral gavage. Animals were killed humanely 24 h after the last administration. Using standard methods, acute oral toxicity dose of HEAR (2000 mg/kg) was non-lethal in rodents. Subacute administration of HEASR6 increased total bilirubin (p < 0.05) in female rats. HEASR moderately altered both haematological and biochemical indices in rats. HEASR6 administration reduced ovary weight in both studies while follicle stimulating hormone level in male was reduced at all doses used. HEASR modulated lipid peroxidation, sperm quality and elevated cyclooxygenase-2 levels in rats. Histology revealed gastritis and congestions in vital organs. The low-observed adverse effect level for HEASR was below 250 mg/kg for both sexes. Overall, HEASR demonstrated inherent toxicity evidenced by our current findings. The exaggeration of its folklore medicine applications calls for cautions.

Agro-Economic Transitions in Guinea-Bissau (West Africa): Historical Trends and Current Insights

The present study provides a critical analysis of the introduction of exotic food crop species and their impact on agricultural transformations in Guinea-Bissau, based on survey data and a review of the literature from the 1800s to the present. It applies a multidisciplinary analysis to map historical and contemporary agrarian knowledge in Guinea-Bissau, presenting the first list of exotic cultivated species introduced in the country. Our results show that many introduced crops have gained widespread acceptance among local producers, with 63 exotic cultivated species native to America and Asia. The most representative families are Fabaceae, Solanaceae, and Anacardiaceae, including the country’s main former and current cash crops. First driven by peanuts in colonial times and by cashew after independence from 1980s onwards, Guinea-Bissau rapidly became one of Africa’s major exporters. The current cashew monoculture—like peanuts before it—relies almost exclusively on smallholder agriculture, raising concerns with regard to biodiversity, sustainability, and food security. The paper analyses historical trends in agro-economic transformations taking into account policies, programs, performance, and scientific research. Despite the existence of a long-standing single crop economy, further research is needed in this largely understudied country to assess the impact of long-term agrarian change.

Albizia Adianthifolia: Botany, Medicinal Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties

The bark, leaves, and roots of Albizia adianthifolia are highly sought after in tropical Africa as herbal medicines. Therefore, the aim of this study was to review the botany, medicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties of A. adianthifolia so as to provide baseline data required for evaluating the therapeutic potential of the species. Information on the botanical profile, medicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties of A. adianthifolia was undertaken using databases such as ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Pubmed, Google Scholar, Medline, SCOPUS, EThOS, ProQuest, OATD, and Open-thesis. Preelectronic literature search of conference papers, scientific articles, books, book chapters, dissertations, and theses was carried out at the University library. Literature search revealed that A. adianthifolia is used as purgative and herbal medicine for diabetes, eye problems, gastrointestinal problems, haemorrhoids, headache, neurodegenerative disorders, reproductive problems in women, respiratory problems, wounds and pain, skin diseases, sexually transmitted infections, and ethnoveterinary medicine. Phytochemical compounds identified from the species include apocarotenoids, chalcone, dipeptide, elliptosides, essential oils, fatty acids, flavonoids, histamine, imidazolyl carboxylic acid, prosapogenins, steroids, triterpene saponins, and triterpenoids. Pharmacological studies revealed that A. adianthifolia extracts and compounds have acetylcholinesterase enzyme inhibitory, anthelmintic, antiamoebic, antibacterial, antimycobacterial, anti-sexually transmitted infections, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anxiolytic, and antidepressant, cognitive-enhancing, haemolytic, hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic, immunomodulatory, and cytotoxicity activities. Detailed studies on the pharmacokinetics, in vivo, and clinical research involving compounds isolated from A. adianthifolia and extracts of the species are required.

Leaves and stem bark from Allophylus africanus P. Beauv.: An approach to anti-inflammatory properties and characterization of their flavonoid profile

The small tree Allophylus africanus, widespread in the African continent, has long been considered valuable, as noted by the number of reports on their multiple medicinal uses. With this work, we aimed to extend the current, and so far restricted, knowledge on the chemical composition of the plant, particularly as source of flavonoids, as well as to assess its potential anti-inflammatory properties. The chemical characterization of the aqueous extract obtained from the leaves allowed the identification and quantitation of 30 flavones, predominantly apigenin derivatives, but also four luteolin derivatives, while the stem bark extract was solely characterized by apigenin di-C-glycosides and mono-C-glycosides-O-glycosylated. Strong inhibitory effects towards 5-lipoxygenase were observed with the aqueous extracts obtained from the leaves and stem bark, with IC₅₀ values of 41.28 and 107.77 μg mL^-1, respectively. Both extracts were also found to reduce NO levels in LPS-challenged RAW 264.7 macrophages, without noticeable cytotoxicity. The flavonoid profile of the plant is disclosed for the first time, allowing the identification of several molecules that may contribute to mitigate the inflammatory response. Jointly, with the current study the anti-inflammatory use of the leaves and stem bark is partially validated.

Ethnopharmacology and Therapeutic Value of Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill. in Tropical Africa: A Comprehensive Review

Bridelia micrantha is traditionally used in tropical Africa to treat a wide range of human and animal diseases. The aim of this study was to summarise the research that has been done on the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of B. micrantha so as to understand its importance and potential value in primary healthcare systems. The literature search for information on ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacological activities of B. micrantha was undertaken using databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, Science Direct, BioMed Central (BMC), PubMed and Springerlink. Other relevant literature sources included books, book chapters, websites, theses, conference papers and other scientific publications. This study showed that B. micrantha is used as herbal medicine in just over half (57.3%) of the countries in tropical Africa where it is indigenous. A total of 54 ethnomedicinal uses of B. micrantha have been recorded with a high degree of consensus on burns, wounds, conjunctivitis, painful eyes, constipation, gastric ulcers, cough, headache, rheumatism, painful joints, dysentery, ethnoveterinary medicine, malaria, sexually transmitted infections, stomach ache, tape worms and diarrhoea. Different plant parts, aqueous and organic extracts exhibited anthelmintic, antimicrobial, anticonvulsant and sedative, antidiabetic, antidiarrhoeal, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antiplasmodial, antischistosomal, hepatoprotective, insecticidal and β-lactamase inhibitory activities.

Ecological data in support of an analysis of Guinea-Bissau׳s medicinal flora

This dataset presents an annotated list of medicinal plants used by local communities in Guinea-Bissau (West Africa), in a total of 218 species. Data was gathered by means of herbarium and bibliographic research, as well as fieldwork. Biological and ecological information is provided for each species, including in-country distribution, geographical range, growth form and main vegetation types. The dataset was used to prepare a paper on the medicinal plants of Guinea-Bissau “Medicinal plants of Guinea-Bissau: therapeutic applications, ethnic diversity and knowledge transfer” (Catarino et al., 2016) [1]. The table and figures provide a unique database for Guinea-Bissau in support of ethno-medical and ethno-pharmacological research, and their ecological dimensions.