Alleviation of cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in Wistar rats by onion lectin (Allium cepa agglutinin)

Effect of bovine colostrum liposomes on the bioavailability of immunoglobulin G and their immunoregulatory function in immunosuppressed BALB/c mice

Bovine colostrum (BC) has high nutritional value; however, the low bioavailability of immune active substances in BC may affect their immunoregulatory function. Our previous studies indicated that encapsulating bovine colostrum with liposomes could enable the sustained release of immunoglobulin G in vitro; however, the effect of bovine colostrum liposomes (BCLs) on the bioavailability of immunoglobulins in vivo is still unknown. In addition, the immunoregulatory function of BCLs on immunosuppressed mice is still unclear. Therefore, our current study aimed to explore the effect of BCLs on the bioavailability of immunoglobulins, and further explore their immunoregulatory effect on immunosuppressed BALB/c mice. Through metabolic cage experiments, it was shown that BCLs decreased the urine and fecal concentrations of IgG and exhibited a higher bioavailability of IgG in mice than BC (about 2-fold). In addition, by establishing an immunosuppressed animal model, it was found that BCLs could increase the body weight, spleen weight, and thymus weight in immunosuppressed BALB/c mice, which further restored the serum levels of interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-10 (IL-10), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interferon γ (IFN-γ). Through histology analysis, it was suggested that BCLs restored the structure of jejunal epithelial cells, which was accompanied by an improvement in intestinal cytokine levels (IL-4, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ). Finally, BCLs increased serum and intestine concentrations of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin A (IgA) in immunosuppressed BALB/c mice, which further indicated that BCLs had a sustained-release effect for immunoglobulin G in vivo. Our current research will provide a basis for understanding the role of BCLs on the bioavailability of IgG and their immunoregulatory effect on immunosuppressed mice, which might further provide some reference for the application of BCLs.

Protective effects of methylprednisolone-cyclophosphamide treatment on bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Methylprednisolone (MP) and cyclophosphamide (CTX) combination treatment has shown great benefits in improving pulmonary fibrosis (PF) and high safety. Currently, the mechanism underlying the effects of MP-CTX on improving PF remains unclear. This study determined the effects of MP-CTX combination treatment on the modulation of inflammation, oxidative stress, and T-cell immunity in PF.

METHODS

PF rat models were induced by bleomycin stimulation. MP (3 mg/kg) and MP-CTX (MP: 3 mg/kg; CTX: 8 mg/kg) combination were administered in the PF + MP and PF + MP + CTX groups, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy, hematoxylin and eosin staining, Ashcroft score, and Masson trichrome staining were performed to measure lung morphology in PF. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay were performed to quantify inflammatory factors. Malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX) levels were determined using commercial kits. α-Smooth muscle actin (SMA) and collagen I levels were determined using western blotting and immunohistochemistry. The T-cell count was evaluated using flow cytometry.

RESULTS

MP-CTX reduced lung injury, collagen deposition, and α-SMA and collagen I levels in a bleomycin-induced PF rat model. Additionally, MP-CTX decreased the levels of MDA and inflammatory factors (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6) but increased the activities of SOD and GSH-PX. Furthermore, MP-CTX changed T-cell types in lung tissues, such as increasing CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ cell count.

CONCLUSIONS

MP-CTX combination treatment improved the degree of PF by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress and improving T-cell immunity. These findings provide novel insights into the mechanisms underlying the effects of MP-CTX on PF.

Antioxidant and Immune Stimulating Effects of Allium cepa Skin in the RAW 264.7 Cells and in the C57BL/6 Mouse Immunosuppressed by Cyclophosphamide

Allium cepa L. (onion) has been reported to have various pharmacological effects, such as preventing heart disease, and improving antimicrobial activity and immunological effects. The Republic of Korea produced 1,195,563 tons of onions (2022). The flesh of onion is used as food while the onion skin (OS) is thrown away as an agro-food by-product and is considered to induce environmental pollution. Thus, we hypothesize that increasing usage of OS as functional food material could help protect from the environment pollution. The antioxidant effects and immune-enhancing effects of OS were evaluated as functional activities of OS. In this study, OS showed high 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging activities and xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitory activity. The antioxidant activities increased in a dose-dependent manner. The IC50 values of DPPH, ABTS radical scavenging activity, and XO inhibitory activity were 954.9 μg/mL, 28.0 μg/mL, and 10.7 μg/mL, respectively. Superoxide dismutase and catalase activities of OS in RAW 264.7 cells were higher than those of the media control. There was no cytotoxicity of OS found in RAW 264.7 cells. Nitric oxide and cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) concentrations in RAW 264.7 cells significantly increased in a dose dependent manner. Immune-stimulating effects of OS were evaluated in immunosuppressed mice induced by cyclophosphamide. White blood cell count and the B cell proliferation of splenocytes were higher in OS100 (OS extract 100 mg/kg body weight) and OS200 (OS extract 200 mg/kg body weight) groups than in the negative control (NC) group. Serum IgG and cytokine (IL-1β and IFN-γ) levels were also higher in OS100 and OS200 groups than in the NC group. OS treatment increased NK cell activity compared with the NC group. The results suggested that OS can improve antioxidant and immune stimulating effects. The use of OS as functional supplement can reduce the agro-food by-product and it may contribute to carbon neutrality.

Effects of Major Royal Jelly Proteins on the Immune Response and Gut Microbiota Composition in Cyclophosphamide-Treated Mice

Increasing evidence suggests that royal jelly (RJ) has exceptional biological properties, and that major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs) are the key active factors in RJ. The objective of this study was to compare the difference in the protein content between RJ and MRJPs using non-labeled, quantitative proteomics technology, and to investigate the adjustment features and mechanisms of MRJPs on murine immune functions and the composition of intestinal flora in cyclophosphamide-treated mice. Results showed that, during the process of extracting MRJPs, the ratio of the protein types in the main protein and other proteins decreased significantly, except for MRJP1 and MRJP7, which demonstrated that an enriching effect of MRJP1 and MRJP7 was present during the extraction process. Cyclophosphamide-induced mice were orally administered MRJPs. Results showed that the middle-dose group, which received 0.25 g/(kg·bw) of royal jelly main protein, demonstrated a clear impact on the development of the spleen and liver, the quantity of peripheral blood leukocytes, immunoglobulin content, immune factor level, and the proliferation ability of spleen lymphocytes. A 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing technology analysis showed that MRJPs could improve the component and richness of intestinal flora and raise the immunity of mice. The above-mentioned results indicated that the application of MRJPs is very likely to have an advantage effect on murine immune functions.

Immunostimulatory Activity of Cordyceps militaris Fermented with Pediococcus pentosaceus SC11 Isolated from a Salted Small Octopus in Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunocompromised Mice and Its Inhibitory Activity against SARS-CoV 3CL Protease

In this study, we investigated the immune-enhancing and anti-viral effects of germinated Rhynchosia nulubilis (GRC) fermented with Pediococcus pentosaceus SC11 (GRC-SC11) isolated from a salted small octopus. The cordycepin, β-glucan, and total flavonoid contents increased in GRC after SC11 fermentation. GRC-SC11 inhibits 3CL protease activity in severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). GRC-SC11 significantly increased thymus and spleen indices in immunocompromised mice. The rate of splenocyte proliferation was higher in GRC-SC11-treated immunocompromised mice than that in GRC-treated immunocompromised mice in the presence or absence of concanavalin A. In addition, GRC-SC11 increased the phagocytic activity and nitric oxide production in immunocompromised mice. The mRNA expression of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interferon-alpha (IFN-α), and interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) was up-regulated in GRC-SC11 treated RAW 264.7 macrophages, compared to GRC. Our study indicates that GRC-SC11 might be a potential therapeutic agent for immunocompromised patients who are vulnerable to SARS-CoV infection.

Onion anthocyanins: Extraction, stability, bioavailability, dietary effect, and health implications

Anthocyanins are high-value compounds, and their use as functional foods and their natural colorant have potential health benefits. Anthocyanins seem to possess antioxidant properties, which help prevent neuronal diseases and thereby exhibit anti-inflammatory, chemotherapeutic, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective activities. They also show different therapeutic effects against various chronic diseases. Anthocyanins are present in high concentrations in onion. In recent years, although both conventional and improved methods have been used for extraction of anthocyanins, nowadays, improved methods are of great importance because of their higher yield and stability of anthocyanins. In this review, we compile anthocyanins and their derivatives found in onion and the factors affecting their stability. We also analyze different extraction techniques of anthocyanins. From this point of view, it is very important to be precisely aware of the impact that each parameter has on the stability and subsequently potentiate its bioavailability or beneficial health effects. We present up-to-date information on bioavailability, dietary effects, and health implications of anthocyanins such as antioxidant, antidiabetic, anticancerous, antiobesity, cardioprotective, and hepatoprotective activities.

Recent advances in research on Allium plants: functional ingredients, physiological activities, and applications in agricultural and food sciences

Fruits and vegetables (FVs) have long been a major source of nutrients and dietary phytochemicals with outstanding physiological properties that are essential for protecting humans from chronic diseases. Moreover, the growing demand of consumers for nutritious and healthy foods is greatly promoting the increased intake of FVs. Allium (Alliaceae) is a perennial bulb plant genus of the Liliaceae family. They are customarily utilized as vegetable, medicinal, and ornamental plants and have an important role in agriculture, aquaculture, and the pharmaceutical industry. Allium plants produce abundant secondary metabolites, such as organosulfur compounds, flavonoids, phenols, saponins, alkaloids, and polysaccharides. Accordingly, Allium plants possess a variety of nutritional, biological, and health-promoting properties, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, immunoregulatory, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory effects. This review aims to highlight the advances in the research on the bioactive components, physiological activities and clinical trials, toxicological assessment for safety, and applications of different Allium plants. It also aims to cover the direction of future research on the Allium genus. This review is expected to provide theoretical reference for the comprehensive development and utilization of Allium plants in the fields of functional foods, medicine, and cosmetics.

Allium cepa: A Treasure of Bioactive Phytochemicals with Prospective Health Benefits

As Allium cepa is one of the most important condiment plants grown and consumed all over the world, various therapeutic and pharmacological effects of A. cepa were reviewed. Onion (Allium cepa) is a high dietary fiber-rich perennial herb that is placed under the family Amaryllidaceae. It contains high concentration of folic acid, vitamin B6, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and phosphorus as well as vitamins and minerals. It is widely used as an antimicrobial agent, but it showed anticancer, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiplatelet, antihypertensive, and antidepressant effects and neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antiparasitic effects and so on. It is said to have beneficial effects on the digestive, circulatory, and respiratory systems, as well as on the immune system. This review article was devoted to discussing many health benefits and traditional uses of onions in pharmacological perspectives, as well as the safety/toxicological profile. If more detailed research on this perennial herb is conducted, it will open the door to an infinite number of possibilities.

A review of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects of Allium cepa and its main constituents

CONTEXT

Allium cepa L. (Liliaceae), known as onion, is consumed throughout the world. Onion and its derivatives including saponins, aglycones, quercetin, cepaenes, flavonoids, organosulfurs, and phenolic compounds, showed various pharmacological properties and therapeutic effects.

OBJECTIVE

Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects of A. cepa and its main constituents, along with the underlying molecular mechanisms are presented.

METHODS

Databases including, Web of Knowledge, Medline/PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were checked for articles published between 1996 and the end of July 2020, using the key-words Allium cepa, quercetin, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulatory.

RESULTS

A. cepa and its constituents mainly quercetin showed anti-inflammatory effects mediated via reduction of total and differential WBC counts, inhibition of chemotaxis of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, COX, and LOX pathways and prevented formation of leukotrienes and thromboxanes, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) as onVCAM-1, NF-κB, MARK,d STAT-1, JNK, p38 and osteoclastogenesis. A. cepa and its derivatives showed antioxidant effect by decreasing lipid peroxidation, NAD(P)H, MDA, NO, LPO and eNOS but enhancing antioxidants such as SOD, CAT, GSH, GPx, GSPO, TrxR, SDH, GST and GR activities and thiol level. Immunomodulatory effects of the plant and quercetin was also shown by reduction of Th2 cytokines, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 as well as IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-1β and TNF-α and IgE levels, but increased CD4 cells, IFN-γ level and IFN-γ/IL4 ratio (Th1/Th2 balance).

CONCLUSIONS

The effect of onion and its constituents on oxidative stress, inflammatory and immune system were shown indicating their therapeutic value in treatment of various diseases associated with oxidative stress, inflammation, and immune-dysregulation.

Immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects of hydroxytyrosol in cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed broilers

As an important olive component, hydroxytyrosol (HT) has good medicinal and health effects. However, its importance in alleviating immune suppression in broilers has not been established. Therefore, we aimed at evaluating the immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects of HT in immune suppressed broilers. Immune suppressed broiler models were established via intraperitoneal injection of 80 mg/kg cyclophosphamide (Cy). Thirty two Cobb 500 male broilers were randomly allocated into 4 groups of 8 each. Broilers in the model (Cy) and HT treatment (Cy+HT) groups were intraperitoneally administered with Cy (80 mg/kg BW) once a day for 3 d. From the 4th d, broilers in the Cy+HT and HT groups were treated with 0.5 mL of 200 mg/L HT solution, once a day, for 7 d. The Cy and Con groups were orally administered with normal saline. On the 14th and 28th d, serum and duodenal samples were obtained for testing. It was found that HT increased villi height (VH)/crypt depth (CD) ratio in the duodenum and suppressed serum tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels. Moreover, it elevated the expressions of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes. HT upregulated the mRNA expression levels of interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-4 (IL-4), and interleukin-10 (IL-10), enhanced the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), and downregulated malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in Cy-induced immune-suppressed broilers. In conclusion, HT can alleviate immune-suppression as well as enhance immunity and antioxidant activities in the local mucosa of small intestines in broilers. Therefore, it can be used as an immune stimulant. More studies should be performed to confirm our findings and to elucidate on the mechanisms of HT.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Jacalin, a Dietary Plant Lectin on the Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMCs)

The tumor microenvironment that refers to the tumor's surroundings is a key modulator of tumor growth and invasion. The tumor-derived signals are known to downregulate the anti-tumor effects of the effector cells present in the TME. Thus, the cross-talk between the tumor cells with the surrounding immune cells helps in evading the tumor surveillance as well as aiding in tumor growth and proliferation. Hence, knowledge regarding the effects of drugs/compound on the tumor-stromal interactions is gaining importance. In the present study, the effects of jacalin, a dietary lectin on the proliferation and cytokine production of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), are investigated. Jacalin was shown to act as a mitogen of PBMCs, the key cytokine secreting immune cells. Also, jacalin initially induced increased mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-γ; however, prolonged stimulation of PBMCs resulted in increased expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine, mainly TGF-β. Furthermore, 6 h jacalin prestimulated PBMCs (Jac-PBMCs) were shown to inhibit HeLa cell proliferation while 24 h Jac-PBMCs were found to favor tumor growth. Thus, it may be postulated that while jacalin initially polarizes the PBMCs to hinder the tumor growth, after a stipulated time point, interaction of jacalin with PBMCs can lead to an immunosuppressive TME that may probably assist in tumor growth and progression.

Immunomodulatory Potential of the Industrialized Houttuynia cordata Fermentation Product In Vitro and in Wistar Rats

Houttuynia cordata fermentation products (HCFPs) are produced and widely used as dietary supplements for health and immune support. However, the effect on immune function for these products has not been clearly demonstrated. In this study, soluble fractions of the selected HCFP were used for determination of the immunomodulatory potential, both in vitro and in animal models. Viability and proliferation of rat splenocytes and phagocytic activity of human neutrophils were evaluated. Studies on immunomodulatory effects, including hematological parameters, mitogen-driven lymphocyte proliferation and hemagglutination, were performed in both healthy and immunosuppressed rats. Soluble fraction of the selected HCFP significantly enhanced phagocytic activity of human neutrophils and tended to stimulate splenocyte viability and proliferation. There was no morbidity or mortality for administration of a 14-day regimen of the selected HCFP in both male and female rats. The healthy rats treated with HCFP gained body weight less than the control group, suggesting a reduction in calorie intake. Moreover, low dose of HCFP caused an increased B cell proliferation in ex-vivo, which was related to the increased antibody titer against SRBC in immunosuppressed rats. Our results indicate that the selected HCFP enhances the phagocytic activity of the neutrophils and augments the antibody production in immunosuppressed rats.

Spectroscopic studies of simultaneous binding of cyclophosphamide and imatinib mesylate to human holo-transferrin

The interactions of proteins with drugs are very important from a pharmacological point of view. Holo-transferrin is a blood-plasma glycoprotein whose main function is iron-binding and the transport of other ligands. Additionally, the protein is only transferrin-form recognized by TfR1 and TfR2 receptors at the surface of rapidly proliferating malignant cells. Imatinib mesylate is a tyrosine-kinase inhibitor mainly used in the treatment of blood cancers, frequently in multidrug therapy with cyclophosphamide. In this study the effect of cyclophosphamide on the interaction of imatinib mesylate with human holo-transferrin has been investigated. Using spectroscopic techniques such as fluorescence, circular dichroism, ultraviolet-visible and electrophoretic light scattering additive parameters, system stability and the effect of the ligands on the protein conformation at varying pH values have been defined. Calculated quenching constants are in the order of 2 × 10⁴ M^-1 and the type of interaction depends on the reaction medium. Under physiological conditions binding constant is 1.329 × 10⁶ M^-1 whereas in an environment similar to that of cancer cells the constant is significantly lower, K_a = 6.060 × 10⁴ M^-1. N values are approximate to 1 in all cases. Moreover, some changes are observed in the α-helical structure of the protein after interaction with the drugs and the presence of cyclophosphamide slightly stabilizes the protein secondary structure. All collected data proves the effect of cyclophosphamide on the interaction between imatinib mesylate and human holo-transferrin. It is of great clinical interest due to anticancer, multidrug therapies including both imatinib mesylate and cyclophosphamide.

Therapeutic Potentials of Antiviral Plants Used in Traditional African Medicine With COVID-19 in Focus: A Nigerian Perspective

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is caused by an infectious novel strain of coronavirus known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which was earlier referred to as 2019-nCoV. The respiratory disease is the most consequential global public health crisis of the 21st century whose level of negative impact increasingly experienced globally has not been recorded since World War II. Up till now, there has been no specific globally authorized antiviral drug, vaccines, supplement or herbal remedy available for the treatment of this lethal disease except preventive measures, supportive care and non-specific treatment options adopted in different countries via divergent approaches to halt the pandemic. However, many of these interventions have been documented to show some level of success particularly the Traditional Chinese Medicine while there is paucity of well reported studies on the impact of the widely embraced Traditional African Medicines (TAM) adopted so far for the prevention, management and treatment of COVID-19. We carried out a detailed review of publicly available data, information and claims on the potentials of indigenous plants used in Sub-Saharan Africa as antiviral remedies with potentials for the prevention and management of COVID-19. In this review, we have provided a holistic report on evidence-based antiviral and promising anti-SARS-CoV-2 properties of African medicinal plants based on in silico evidence, in vitro assays and in vivo experiments alongside the available data on their mechanistic pharmacology. In addition, we have unveiled knowledge gaps, provided an update on the effort of African Scientific community toward demystifying the dreadful SARS-CoV-2 micro-enemy of man and have documented popular anti-COVID-19 herbal claims emanating from the continent for the management of COVID-19 while the risk potentials of herb-drug interaction of antiviral phytomedicines when used in combination with orthodox drugs have also been highlighted. This review exercise may lend enough credence to the potential value of African medicinal plants as possible leads in anti-COVID-19 drug discovery through research and development.

Immunomodulatory activity of puerarin in RAW264.7 macrophages and cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression mice

CONTEXT

Puerarin, a natural isoflavone extracted from Radix puerariae, is famous for treating various cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. However, little is known about its direct immunomodulatory activity.

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to investigate the in vitro and in vivo immunomodulatory effects of Radix puerariae by using the murine monocyte-macrophage cell line RAW264.7 and immunosuppressed cyclophosphamide-induced mice.

METHODS

MTT and neutral red phagocytosis assays were conducted to evaluate the in vitro immunomodulatory activities of puerarin on cell viability and phagocytosis by measuring the proliferation, phagocytic, nitric oxide (NO) ability, and TNF-α production ability of stimulated and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Immunosuppressed cyclophosphamide-induced mice were used to evaluate the in vivo immunomodulatory activities of puerarin by measuring IL-4 and IFN-γ, the serum half hemolysis value, spleen and thymus index, and proliferation assay for splenic lymphocytes.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results showed that puerarin improves immunomodulatory activity by increasing cell proliferation, cell phagocytosis, and NO secretion in RAW264.7 macrophages and reduces the abnormal immunologic activity by decreasing cell phagocytosis and NO secretion in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. In addition, puerarin enhanced the immunologic activity of cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression mice by increasing the secretion of NO, IFN-γ, and IL-4, the serum half hemolysis value (HC₅₀), the spleen and thymus index, and proliferation for splenic lymphocytes.

CONCLUSION

Puerarin exhibited an upregulated immunomodulatory effect on RAW264.7 macrophages and immunosuppression mice. In addition, puerarin had a downregulated immunomodulatory effect on RAW264.7 macrophages. The results suggest that puerarin could be a promising immunomodulator to assist in the treatment of tumors.

Plant Phenolics and Lectins as Vaccine Adjuvants

Background:

The immune system is responsible for providing protection to the body against foreign substances. The immune system divides into two types of immune responses to study its mechanisms of protection: 1) Innate and 2) Adaptive. The innate immune response represents the first protective barrier of the organism that also works as a regulator of the adaptive immune response, if evaded the mechanisms of the innate immune response by the foreign substance the adaptive immune response takes action with the consequent antigen neutralization or elimination. The adaptive immune response objective is developing a specific humoral response that consists in the production of soluble proteins known as antibodies capable of specifically recognizing the foreign agent; such protective mechanism is induced artificially through an immunization or vaccination. Unfortunately, the immunogenicity of the antigens is an intrinsic characteristic of the same antigen dependent on several factors.

Conclusion:

Vaccine adjuvants are chemical substances of very varied structure that seek to improve the immunogenicity of antigens. The main four types of adjuvants under investigation are the following: 1) Oil emulsions with an antigen in solution, 2) Pattern recognition receptors activating molecules, 3) Inflammatory stimulatory molecules or activators of the inflammasome complex, and 4) Cytokines. However, this paper addresses the biological plausibility of two phytochemical compounds as vaccine adjuvants: 5) Lectins, and 6) Plant phenolics whose characteristics, mechanisms of action and disadvantages are addressed. Finally, the immunological usefulness of these molecules is discussed through immunological data to estimate effects of plant phenolics and lectins as vaccine adjuvants, and current studies that have implanted these molecules as vaccine adjuvants, demonstrating the results of this immunization.

Protective effects of garlic extract against hematological alterations, immunosuppression, hepatic oxidative stress, and renal damage induced by cyclophosphamide in rats

Cyclophosphamide is an alkylating agent widely used as anticancer drug, reported to exert cytotoxic effects attributed to oxidative stress. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the protective effect of ethanolic extract of garlic (EEG) against cyclophosphamide (Cyp)-induced hematological disturbance and immunosuppressive and hepatotoxic effects. Forty male Wistar albino rats were randomized into four equal groups: the normal control one, the Cyp-treated group (50 mg/kg BW/IM, once weekly), the EEG-treated group (300 mg/kg BW, orally, daily), and the Cyp & EEG group. All rats received their relevant treatments for four consecutive weeks. This study revealed that Cyp significantly decreased erythrocyte count, hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), and total leukocyte and lymphocyte counts. However, the counts of neutrophils, eosinophils, and toxic neutrophils were elevated. Additionally, hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) and levels of liver and renal biomarkers were significantly elevated in the Cyp-treated group. Otherwise, hepatic catalase (CAT), reduced glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and serum total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were significantly lower than the control rats. Furthermore, Cyp significantly reduced whole blood respiratory burst activity (NBT), serum lysozyme and bactericidal activities, interlukin-12 (IL-12), and interferon-γ. In contrast, the levels of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interlukin-1β (IL-1β) were elevated. Additionally, Cyp induced hepatic and renal histopathological alterations. Data in the present study demonstrated that EEG has immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects and has the ability to diminish the alterations induced by Cyp.

Omega-3 fatty acids modulate cyclophosphamide induced markers of immunosuppression and oxidative stress in pigs

Immunosuppression directly correlates with economic benefits in livestock. Although omega-3, known as an energy source, is used as a pharmaceutical molecule, it remains unknown whether dietary supplementation with omega-3 can alleviate cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in pigs. Omega-3 treatment increased the number of white blood cell, lymphocytes, and monocytes and decreased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α production under CTX challenge. In addition, we confirmed that omega-3 decreased the expression of nuclear factor (NF)-κB, TNF-α, interferon (IFN)-γ, and interleukin (IL)-8 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Additionally, omega-3 alleviated the activities of liver injury markers (alanine transaminase [ALT] and aspartate transaminase [AST]) and modulated oxidative stress markers (superoxide dismutase [SOD], malondialdehyde [MDA], and glutathione peroxidase [GPx]) in the blood serum after the CTX challenge. Based on these results, we suggest that omega-3 treatment modulates CTX-induced immunosuppression and oxidative stress in pigs. These results may have important implications in the development of new therapeutic approaches to improve immunosuppression, hepatic injury and dysfunction, and oxidative stress in pigs.

Tarin stimulates granulocyte growth in bone marrow cell cultures and minimizes immunosuppression by cyclo-phosphamide in mice

Chemotherapeutic drugs, such as cyclophosphamide, cause severe immunosuppression and patients become susceptible to infections. Based on this, the immunomodulatory potential of tarin, a lectin from Colocasia esculenta, was evaluated in bone marrow cell cultures and in cyclophosphamide-immunosuppressed mice. Tarin promoted maintenance of hematopoietic progenitors and repopulation of Gr1 cells in vitro which was supported by in vivo results. In immunosuppressed mice, tarin increased bone marrow cell numbers and altered cell profile distribution by enhancing the frequency of Gr1+ progenitors, including Ly6-CintLy6-Glo, and anticipating their proliferation/differentiation in mature cells, especially Ly6-CloLy6-Ghi. Bone marrow cells harvested from tarin-treated immunosuppressed mice proliferated in response to GM-CSF or G-CSF in vitro and, the low numbers of bone marrow cells in the G0 phase, combined with a high number cells undergoing apoptosis confirmed that tarin promoted a faster and intense proliferation/differentiation, even in the presence of CY-induced toxicity. As a result, tarin minimized leukopenia in immunosuppressed mice promoting a faster recovery of peripheral leucocytes and protected erythroid bone marrow cells from CY-cytotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner. Data suggest that tarin could be considered a potential adjuvant to decrease leukopenia and possibly ameliorate anemia, if carefully evaluated in human cancer cell lineages and in clinical trials.

Immunomodulatory activity of a novel polysaccharide from Lonicera japonica in immunosuppressed mice induced by cyclophosphamide

Lonicera japonica is a typical Chinese herbal medicine. We previously reported a method to isolate polysaccharides from Lonicera japonica (LJP). In this study, we first performed a qualitative analysis of LJP using the Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FT-IR) and explored the monosaccharide composition of LJP using the pre-column derivatization high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. We then investigated the immunomodulatory function of LJP in cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppressed mouse models. The results showed that LJP had the characteristic absorption of typical polysaccharides consisting of 6 types of monosaccharides. In addition, LJP can increase significantly the organ index, splenic lymphocyte proliferation, macrophage phagocytosis, and natural killer (NK) cell activity in CTX-treated mice. LJP could also restore the levels of serum cytokines interleukin (IL-2), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in the CTX-treated mice. Finally, the results on measuring the T-lymphocytes subsets of spleen also confirmed LJP-induced immunomodulatory activity in immunosuppressed mice from another perspective. Therefore, LJP could be used as a potential immunomodulatory agent.

Oligopeptide derived from solid-state fermented cottonseed meal significantly affect the immunomodulatory in BALB/c mice treated with cyclophosphamide

In this study, the immunomodulatory activity of oligopeptide (CP) derived from solid-state fermented cottonseed meal were investigated in immunosuppressed BALB/c mice models by treatment with cyclophosphamide (CY). Results indicated that oligopeptide increased the thymus and spleen indices of CY-treated mice. The count of plague forming cells (PFC) and the content of half serum hemolysis (HC₅₀) in immunosuppressive mice were restored to the normal level in CP-10 and CP-20 groups while the cytokines interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) were increased significantly in CP-20 group. Similar increasing the immunoglobulin of IgG and IgM content in the serum of CP-10 group were also observed. These findings indicated that oligopeptide derived from solid-state fermented cottonseed meal had a strong immune-enhancing activity as well as a protective effect against immunosuppression induced by cyclophosphamide in mice.

The effects of Ciji-Hua'ai-Baosheng on immune function of mice with H22 hepatocellular carcinoma receiving chemotherapy

BACKGROUND

Ciji-Hua'ai-Baosheng Decoction (CHBD) is a traditional Chinese formula that may attenuate the toxicity and side-effects of chemotherapy. The formula may also prolong the life of cancer patients. Whether CHBD should be employed as adjunctive therapy for cancer patients receiving chemotherapy has yet to be determined as does the mechanism whereby CHBD exerts its beneficial effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To document the potential effects of CHBD on tumor growth and immune function in a murine model of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) receiving chemotherapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sixty Kunming mice were injected subcutaneously with H₂₂ hepatoma cells in the right anterior armpit. After seven days, the mice with formed tumors were injected with Cytoxan (CTX) (200 mg/kg) to establish the chemotherapy model. These mice were randomly divided into 5 groups: model (untreated controls), control (CTX,33.33 mg/kg), and high CHBD (H) (117 g/kg), moderate CHBD (M) (58.5 g/kg) and low CHBD (L) (29.25 g/kg) treated groups. Tumor weights and inhibitory ratio (decrease in tumor dimensions), histology of tumor, colon, spleen and liver, and biochemical tests of liver and kidney function were documented after 10 days. Serum and tumor IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-6, and TNF-α levels were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blot respectively. The potential bioactive compounds in CHBD were characterized by UHPLC-MS.

RESULTS

Although tumor weights were decreased in CTX alone and CHBD (H) and CHBD (M) groups (-66%, -41% and -25% respectively), tumor cell density was reduced to the greatest extent in the CHBD (H) group. CHBD had no evident effects on liver and kidney function. CTX-induced colon inflammation and decrease in spleen lymphocytes were attenuated with CHBD treatment. CHBD increased serum IL-2, IFN-γ and TNF-α, but decreased IL-6 levels in serum and tumor tissue. UHPLC-MS analysis of CHBD revealed the presence of 11 bioactive compounds.

CONCLUSIONS

In this murine model of HCC receiving chemotherapy, CHBD inhibited tumor growth, improved immune function and pro-inflammatory cytokine responses while attenuating CTX-associated side effects.

Immune-enhancing activity of C. militaris fermented with Pediococcus pentosaceus (GRC-ON89A) in CY-induced immunosuppressed model

Background

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is reported to exert various immune-activities. To enhance its activity, we fermented C.militaris with Pediococcus pentosaceus ON89A (GRC-ON89A). In this study, we investigated the immune-enhancing activity GRC-ON89A, using immunosuppressed model.

Methods

Immunosuppression was induced by intraperitoneal injection of cyclophosphamide (CY). Each group was orally administered distilled water, GRC-ON89A or GRC, respectively. The phagocytic activities against IgG -opsonized FITC particles were measured using phagocytosis assay kit. The contents β-glucan, cordycepin and SCFA were measured using β-glucan kit, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis and Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis, respectively.

Results

Among GRC fermented with different probiotic strains (Pediococcus pentossaceus ON89A, Lactobacillus pentosus SC64, Weissella cibaria Sal.Cla22), GRC-ON89A induced the highest elevation of nitric oxide production and enhanced phagocytic activity of RAW 264.7 cells. In primary cultured murine macrophages from normal and CY-treated mice, GRC-ON89A increased phagocytic activity, compared to that in control cells. GRC-ON89A also significantly induced the mRNA expression of TNF-α and IL-10 and the levels of phosphorylated Lyn, Syk and MAPK. The contents of β-glucan, cordycepin and SCFA in GRC significantly increased after ON89A fermentation, compared to those in unfermented GRC.

Conclusion

These results indicate that GRC-ON89A exerted the enhanced immunostimulatory activity and contained more nutritional components, compared to unfermented GRC. Our results suggested that GRC-ON89A may be applied as an agent for immune boosting therapy in immune suppressed patients.