Panax notoginseng saponins provide neuroprotection by regulating NgR1/RhoA/ROCK2 pathway expression, in vitro and in vivo

Neuroprotection and mechanisms of ginsenosides in nervous system diseases: Progress and perspectives

Ginsenosides are the primary component discernible from ginseng, including Rb1, Rb2, Rd, Rg1, Rg2, and compound K, and so forth. They have been shown to have multiple pharmacological activities. In recent years, more and more studies have been devoted to the neuroprotection of various ginsenosides against neurological diseases and their potential mechanisms. This paper comprehensively summarizes and reviews the neuroprotective effects of various ginsenosides on neurological diseases, especially acute and chronic neurodegenerative diseases, and their mechanisms, as well as their potential therapeutic applications to promote neuroprotection in disease prevention, treatment, and prognosis. Briefly, ginsenosides exert effective neuroprotective effects on neurological conditions, including stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and brain/spinal cord injuries through a variety of molecular mechanisms, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic. Among them, some signaling pathways play important roles in related processes, such as PI3K/Akt, TLR4/NF-κB, ROS/TXNIP/NLRP3, HO-1/Nrf2, Wnt/β-catenin, and Ca2+ pathway. In conclusion, the present study reviews the research progress on the neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides in the last decade, with the aim of furnishing essential theoretical underpinning and effective references for further research and exploration of the multiple medicinal values of Chinese herbal medicines and their small molecule compounds, including ginseng and panax ginseng. Because there is less evidence in the existing clinical studies, future research should be focused on clinical trials in order to truly reflect the clinical value of various ginsenosides for the benefit of patients.

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Yi people in Mile, Yunnan, China

BACKGROUND

The Yi people are a sociolinguistic group living in Mile City, which is their typical settlement in southeastern Yunnan, China. Over the long history of using medicinal plants, the Yi people have accumulated and developed a wealth of traditional medicinal knowledge, which has played a vital role in their health care. However, only a few studies have been performed to systematically document the medicinal plants commonly used by the Yi people. This study provides fundamental data for the development and application of ethnomedicine as well as supports the conservation of the traditional medical knowledge of the Yi people.

METHODS

This study was conducted from May 2020 to August 2022 and involved five townships in Mile. Information regarding medicinal plants was obtained through semistructured interviews, key informant interviews, and participatory observation. The collected voucher specimens were identified using the botanical taxonomy method and deposited in the herbarium. Ethnobotanical data were analyzed using informant consensus factor, relative frequency of citation, and fidelity level.

RESULTS

In total, 114 informants distributed in five townships of Mile were interviewed. The Yi people used 267 medicinal plant species belonging to 232 genera and 104 families to treat various diseases. Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, and Fabaceae were the most commonly used plant families by the Yi people. In addition, herbs were most commonly used by the Yi people. Whole plants and roots were the preferred medicinal parts. Decoctions were the most common method of herbal medicine preparation. There are 49 different recorded diseases treated by Yi medicinal plants, and among them, respiratory diseases, rheumatism, traumatic injury, fractures, and digestive system diseases have the largest number of species used. A quantitative analysis demonstrated that plants such as Zingiber officinale, Lycopodium japonicum, Aconitum carmichaelii, Panax notoginseng, Cyathula officinalis, and Leonurus japonicus played crucial roles in disease prevention and treatment.

CONCLUSION

Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants is closely associated with the social culture of the local Yi people. The medicinal plants used for health care in the study area were diverse. Local healers were skilled at using medicinal plants to treat various diseases. Their treatment methods were convenient and unique, exhibiting distinctive regional characteristics. However, the inheritance of their traditional medicinal knowledge and protection of wild medicinal plant resources are facing serious challenges, including the decreasing number of local healers, aging of healers, lack of successors, and excessive harvesting of medicinal plant resources. This ethnobotanical survey provides a useful reference for the sustainable utilization and protection of medicinal plant resources in Mile and the inheritance of traditional medicinal knowledge of the Yi people.

Traditional Chinese medicines treat ischemic stroke and their main bioactive constituents and mechanisms

Ischemic stroke (IS) remains one of the leading causes of death and disability in humans. Unfortunately, none of the treatments effectively provide functional benefits to patients with IS, although many do so by targeting different aspects of the ischemic cascade response. The advantages of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in preventing and treating IS are obvious in terms of early treatment and global coordination. The efficacy of TCM and its bioactive constituents has been scientifically proven over the past decades. Based on clinical trials, this article provides a review of commonly used TCM patent medicines and herbal decoctions indicated for IS. In addition, this paper also reviews the mechanisms of bioactive constituents in TCM for the treatment of IS in recent years, both domestically and internationally. A comprehensive review of preclinical and clinical studies will hopefully provide new ideas to address the threat of IS.

Natural products for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

BACKGROUND

Neurodegenerative diseases are among the most common diseases in older adults worldwide. Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are two of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, and are accompanied by cerebral cortical atrophy, neuronal loss, protein accumulation, and excessive accumulation of metal ions. Natural products exhibit outstanding performance in improving cerebral circulatory disorders, promoting cerebral haematoma absorption, repairing damaged nerve tissue, and improving damaged nerve function. In recent years, studies have shown that neuroinflammatory mechanisms and signalling pathways closely related to the occurrence and development of neurological diseases include microglial activation, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway, mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) pathway, reactive oxygen pathway, nucleotide binding oligomerisation domain-like receptor protein3 (NLRP3) inflammasomes, toll-like receptor4 (TLR4) pathway, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1) pathway, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) pathway, and intestinal flora. Therefore, this study considered the mechanism of neurological diseases as the starting point to review the mechanism of action of natural products in the prevention and treatment of AD and PD in recent years to provide a theoretical basis for clinical prevention and treatment.

AIM

Natural products are a promising source of novel lead structures that have long been used to treat various nervous system diseases.

METHODOLOGY

This review collected literature on neurological diseases and natural products from 2012 to 2022, which were mainly searched through databases such as ScienceDirect, Springer, PubMed, SciFinder, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang, Google Scholar, and Baidu Academic. The following keywords were searched: neurological disorders, natural products, signalling pathway, mechanism of action.

RESULTS

This review summarises the pathogenesis of degenerative neurological diseases, recent findings on natural products used in neurodegenerative diseases, and the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects.

Neuronal Responses to Ischemia: Scoping Review of Insights from Human-Derived In Vitro Models

Translation of neuroprotective treatment effects from experimental animal models to patients with cerebral ischemia has been challenging. Since pathophysiological processes may vary across species, an experimental model to clarify human-specific neuronal pathomechanisms may help. We conducted a scoping review of the literature on human neuronal in vitro models that have been used to study neuronal responses to ischemia or hypoxia, the parts of the pathophysiological cascade that have been investigated in those models, and evidence on effects of interventions. We included 147 studies on four different human neuronal models. The majority of the studies (132/147) was conducted in SH-SY5Y cells, which is a cancerous cell line derived from a single neuroblastoma patient. Of these, 119/132 used undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells, that lack many neuronal characteristics. Two studies used healthy human induced pluripotent stem cell derived neuronal networks. Most studies used microscopic measures and established hypoxia induced cell death, oxidative stress, or inflammation. Only one study investigated the effect of hypoxia on neuronal network functionality using micro-electrode arrays. Treatment targets included oxidative stress, inflammation, cell death, and neuronal network stimulation. We discuss (dis)advantages of the various model systems and propose future perspectives for research into human neuronal responses to ischemia or hypoxia.

Cycloartane Saponins from Astragalus glycyphyllos and Their In Vitro Neuroprotective, Antioxidant, and hMAO-B-Inhibiting Effects

Astragalus glycyphyllos (Fabaceae) is used in the traditional medicine of many countries against hepatic and cardiac disorders. The plant contains mainly flavonoids and saponins. From a defatted methanol extract from its overground parts, a new triterpenoid saponin, 3-O-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)]-β-D-xylopyranosyl]-24-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-3β,6α,16β,24(R),25-pentahydroxy-20R-cycloartane, together with the rare saponin astrachrysoside A, were isolated using various chromatography methods. The compounds were identified via extensive high resolution electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (HRESIMS) and NMR analyses. Both saponins were examined for their possible antioxidant and neuroprotective activity in three different in vitro models. Rat brain synaptosomes, mitochondria, and microsomes were isolated via centrifugation using Percoll gradient. They were treated with the compounds in three different concentrations alone, and in combination with 6-hydroxydopamine or tert-butyl hydroperoxide as toxic agents. It was found that the compounds had statistically significant dose-dependent in vitro protective activity on the sub-cellular fractions. The compounds exhibited a weak inhibitory effect on the enzyme activity of human recombinant monoamine oxidase type B (hMAO-B), compared to selegiline.

MicroRNA-124-3p alleviates cerebral ischaemia-induced neuroaxonal damage by enhancing Nrep expression

OBJECTIVE

Ischaemic stroke has a high death rate and frequently results in long-term and severe brain damage in survivors. miRNA-124-3p (miR-124-3p) treatment has been suggested to reduce ischaemia and play a vital function in avoiding neuron death. An investigation of the role of miR-124-3p, in the ischaemia damage repair or protection in the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) model, was the purpose of this research.

METHODS

The expression of miRNA and mRNA in the MCAO model was predicted using bioinformatics analysis. The OGD/R neuronal model was developed. We examined the influence of a number of compounds on the OGD/R model in vitro using gain- and loss-of-function approaches.

RESULTS

For starters, miR-124-3p and Nrep level in the MCAO model were found to be lower in the model predicted by bioinformatics than in the sham-operated group. And then in the OGD/R model, miR-124-3p treatment reduced OGD/R neuronal damage, increased neuronal survival, and reduced apoptosis in cell lines. Moreover, we further looked at the impact of miR-124-3p on downstream Rnf38 and Nrep using the OGD/R model. Western blot analysis and dual-luciferase reporter assays indicated that miR-124-3p binds and inhibits Rnf38. Finally, although Nrep expression was reduced in the OGD/R model neuronal model, it was shown that miR-124-3p administration reduced apoptosis and increased neuronal activity, particularly with regard to axon regeneration-related proteins.

CONCLUSION

Our studies have shown that miR-124-3p may reduce neuronal injury by preventing Rnf38-mediated effects on the Nrep axis.

The role of traditional herbal medicine for ischemic stroke: from bench to clinic-A critical review

BACKGROUND

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a leading cause of death and severe long-term disability worldwide. Over the past few decades, considerable progress has been made in anti-ischemic therapies. However, IS remains a tremendous challenge, with favourable clinical outcomes being generally difficult to achieve from candidate drugs in preclinical phase testing. Traditional herbal medicine (THM) has been used to treat stroke for over 2,000 years in China. In modern times, THM as an alternative and complementary therapy have been prescribed in other Asian countries and have gained increasing attention for their therapeutic effects. These millennia of clinical experience allow THM to be a promising avenue for improving clinical efficacy and accelerating drug discovery.

PURPOSE

To summarise the clinical evidence and potential mechanisms of THMs in IS.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was conducted in seven electronic databases, including PubMed, EMBASE, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, the Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure, the VIP Information Database, the Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, and the Wanfang Database, from inception to 17 June 2022 to examine the efficacy and safety of THM for IS, and to investigate experimental studies regarding potential mechanisms.

RESULTS

THM is widely prescribed for IS alone or as adjuvant therapy. In clinical trials, THM is generally administered within 72 h of stroke onset and are continuously prescribed for over 3 months. Compared with Western medicine (WM), THM combined with routine WM can significantly improve neurological function defect scores, promote clinical total effective rate, and accelerate the recovery time of stroke with fewer adverse effects (AEs). These effects can be attributed to multiple mechanisms, mainly anti-inflammation, antioxidative stress, anti-apoptosis, brain blood barrier (BBB) modulation, inhibition of platelet activation and thrombus formation, and promotion of neurogenesis and angiogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

THM may be a promising candidate for IS management to guide clinical applications and as a reference for drug development.

Isolation of Phenolic Compounds from Raspberry Based on Molecular Imprinting Techniques and Investigation of Their Anti-Alzheimer's Disease Properties

Alzheimer's disease is the most common neurodegenerative disease, characterized by memory loss and cognitive dysfunction. Raspberry fruits contain polyphenols which have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we used molecular imprinting technology to efficiently isolate phenolic components from the raspberry ethyl acetate extracts. Six phenolic components (ellagic acid, tiliroside, kaempferol-3-o-rutoside, gallic acid, ferulic acid and vanillic acid) were identified by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS analysis. Molecular docking was used to predict the anti-inflammatory effects and anti-Alzheimer's potential of these isolated compounds, which showed a good binding ability to diseases and related proteins. However, the binding energy and docking fraction of ellagic acid, tiliroside, and kaempferol-3-o-rutoside were better than those of gallic acid, ferulic acid and vanillic acid. Additionally, by studying the effects of these six phenolic components on the LPS-induced secretion of inflammatory mediators in murine microglial (BV2) cells, it was further demonstrated that they were all capable of inhibiting the secretion of NO, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β to a certain extent. However, ellagic acid, tiliroside, and kaempferol-3-o-rutoside have better inhibitory effects compared to others. The results obtained suggest that the phenolic components extracted from ethyl acetate extracts of raspberry by molecularly imprinted polymers have the potential to inhibit the progression of Alzheimer's disease.

The mechanism of ferroptosis regulating oxidative stress in ischemic stroke and the regulation mechanism of natural pharmacological active components

Cerebrovascular diseases, such as ischemic stroke, pose serious medical challenges worldwide due to their high morbidity and mortality and limitations in clinical treatment strategies. Studies have shown that reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated inflammation, excitotoxicity, and programmed cell death of each neurovascular unit during post-stroke hypoxia and reperfusion play an important role in the pathological cascade. Ferroptosis, a programmed cell death characterized by iron-regulated accumulation of lipid peroxidation, is caused by abnormal metabolism of lipids, glutathione (GSH), and iron, and can accelerate acute central nervous system injury. Recent studies have gradually uncovered the pathological process of ferroptosis in the neurovascular unit of acute stroke. Some drugs such as iron chelators, ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) and liproxstatin-1 (Lip-1) can protect nerves after neurovascular unit injury in acute stroke by inhibiting ferroptosis. In addition, combined with our previous studies on ferroptosis mediated by natural compounds in ischemic stroke, this review summarized the progress in the regulation mechanism of natural chemical components and herbal chemical components on ferroptosis in recent years, in order to provide reference information for future research on ferroptosis and lead compounds for the development of ferroptosis inhibitors.

Pharmacological therapy to cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury: Focus on saponins

Secondary insult from cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) is a major risk factor for poor prognosis of cerebral ischemia. Saponins are steroid or triterpenoid glycosides with various pharmacological activities that are effective in treating CIRI. By browsing the literature from 2001 to 2021, 55 references involving 24 kinds of saponins were included. Saponins were shown to relieve CIRI by inhibiting oxidation stress, neuroinflammation, and apoptosis, restoring BBB integrity, and promoting neurogenesis and angiogenesis. This review summarizes and classifies several common saponins and their mechanisms in relieving CIRI. Information provided in this review will benefit researchers to design, research and develop new medicines to treat CIRI-related conditions with saponins.

A comprehensive system review of pharmacological effects and relative mechanisms of Ginsenoside Re: Recent advances and future perspectives

BACKGROUND

Ginsenoside Re (Re) belongs to protopanaxatriol saponins and exists in Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolium, Panax notoginseng, and other plants in the Araliaceae family. Re has recently become a research focus owing to its pharmacological activities and benefits to human bodies.

PURPOSE

To summarize recent findings regarding the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of Re and highlight and predict the potential therapeutic effects and systematic mechanism of Re.

METHODS

Recent studies (2011-2021) on the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of Re were retrieved from Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Embase up to December 2021 using relevant keywords. Network pharmacology and bioinformatics analysis were used to predict the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of Re against potential diseases.

RESULTS

Re presented a wide range of therapeutic and biological activities, including neuroprotective, cardiovascular, antidepressant, antitumorigenic, and others effects. The related pharmacological mechanisms of Re include the regulation of cholinergic and antioxidant systems in the brain; the induction of tumor cell apoptosis; the inhibition of tau protein hyperphosphorylation and oxidative stress; the activation of p38MAPK, ERK1/2, and JNK signals; the improvement of lipid metabolism; and the reduction of endothelial cell dysfunction.

CONCLUSION

This paper summarizes comprehensively the current research progress of Re and provides new research insights into the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of Re against potential diseases.

The PI3K/AKT Pathway-The Potential Key Mechanisms of Traditional Chinese Medicine for Stroke

Stroke is associated with a high disability and fatality rate, and adversely affects the quality of life of patients and their families. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has been used effectively in the treatment of stroke for more than 2000 years in China and surrounding countries and regions, and over the years, this field has gleaned extensive clinical treatment experience. The Phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) pathway is important for regulation of cell migration, proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, and plays a vital role in vascularization and oxidative stress in stroke. Current Western medicine treatment protocols for stroke include mainly pharmacologic or mechanical thrombectomy to restore blood flow. This review collates recent advances in the past 5 years in the TCM treatment of stroke involving the PI3K/AKT pathway. TCM treatment significantly reduces neuronal damage, inhibits cell apoptosis, and delays progression of stroke via various PI3K/AKT-mediated downstream pathways. In the future, TCM can provide new perspectives and directions for exploring the key factors, and effective activators or inhibitors that affect occurrence and progression of stroke, thereby facilitating treatment.

Xuesaitong oral preparation as adjuvant therapy for treating acute cerebral infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cerebral infarction is the second leading cause of death and the third most common cause of disability. The use of anti-platelet aggregation drugs is prone to bleeding, liver and kidney damage, gastrointestinal reactions, and is not suitable for patients to take for a long time. Xuesaitong oral preparations (XSTOP), a traditional Chinese medicine formula, has shown therapeutic effect on treating cerebral infarction based on the clinical practice and pharmacological mechanism.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aims to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of XSTOP combined with conventional treatment (CT) in treatment of acute cerebral infarction (ACI), and to provide the reliable evidence for clinical application.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a literature search in Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang Database, VIP Database, PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library and Web of Science from their inceptions to August 2021. Systematic searches for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of XSTOP in treatment of ACI. Odds ratio (OR) or mean difference (MD) with their 95% confidence interval was calculated between with and without XSTOP therapy. Cochrane risk of bias tool was used to evaluate the methodological quality of the included trials.

RESULTS

Eight RCTs involving 827 patients were included in this meta-analysis. By comparing XSTOP plus conventional treatment with conventional treatment alone, the meta-analysis gave the following results: (1) Total effective rate (OR = 4.53, 95% CI[2.85, 7.19], P < 0.0001); (2) National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score (MD = -3.22, 95% CI[-4.52, -1.92], P＜0.00001); (3) Plasma viscosity (PV) (MD = -0.74, 95%CI [-0.96, -0.51], P＜0.00001), hole blood high-cut viscosity (HBV) (MD = -0.63, 95%CI [-0.73, -0.53], P = 0.84), whole blood low-cut viscosity (LBV) (MD = -0.37, 95%CI [-0.56, -0.19], P = 0.96), fibrinogen (FIB) (MD = -23.78, 95%CI [-28.57, -18.99], P = 1.00), hematocrit (Hct) (MD = -2.76, 95%CI [-3.16, -2.36], P = 0.96); (4) China Stroke Scale (CSS) score (MD = -6.53, 95% CI[-9.07, -3.99], P＜0.00001); (5) No significant adverse reactions were reported; (6) The evidence was downgraded to "very low" quality, according to GRADE system.

CONCLUSION

XSTOP plus CT is conditional recommended to improve the total effective rate, NIHSS score, PV, CSS score, and no serious adverse reactions were noted. The GRADE assessment indicates that the overall certainty quality of evidence is very low. Further large-scale, well-designed and high-quality RCTs are needed to confirm the positive results. As all studies included were conducted in China. It is unclear if the findings of this meta-analysis could be generalized to other populations.

Research Trends, Hot Spots, and Prospects for Traditional Chinese Medicine in the Field of Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is one of the most common phenomena in ischemic disease or processes that causes progressive disability or even death. It has a major impact on global public health. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has a long history of application in ischemic diseases and has significant clinical effect. Numerous studies have shown that the formulas or single herbs in TCM have specific roles in regulating oxidative stress, anti-inflammatory, inhibiting cell apoptosis, etc., in I/R injury. We used bibliometrics to quantitatively analyze the global output of publications on TCM in the field of I/R injury published in the period 2001–2021 to identify research hotspots and prospects. We included 446 related documents published in the Web of Science during 2001–2021. Visualization analysis revealed that the number of publications related to TCM in the field of I/R injury has increased year by year, reaching a peak in 2020. China is the country with the largest number of publications. Keywords and literature analyses demonstrated that neuroregeneration is likely one of the research hotspots and future directions of research in the field. Taken together, our findings suggest that although the inherent limitations of bibliometrics may affect the accuracy of the literature-based prediction of research hotspots, the results obtained from the included publications can provide a reference for the study of TCM in the field of I/R injury.

Challenges and Improvements of Novel Therapies for Ischemic Stroke

Stroke is the third most common disease all over the world, which is regarded as a hotspot in medical research because of its high mortality and morbidity. Stroke, especially ischemic stroke, causes severe neural cell death, and no effective therapy is currently available for neuroregeneration after stroke. Although many therapies have been shown to be effective in preclinical studies of ischemic stroke, almost none of them passed clinical trials, and the reasons for most failures have not been well identified. In this review, we focus on several novel methods, such as traditional Chinese medicine, stem cell therapy, and exosomes that have not been used for ischemic stroke till recent decades. We summarize the proposed basic mechanisms underlying these therapies and related clinical results, discussing advantages and current limitations for each therapy emphatically. Based on the limitations such as side effects, narrow therapeutic window, and less accumulation at the injury region, structure transformation and drug combination are subsequently applied, providing a deep understanding to develop effective treatment strategies for ischemic stroke in the near future.

Panax notoginseng saponins reduces the cisplatin-induced acute renal injury by increasing HIF-1α/BNIP3 to inhibit mitochondrial apoptosis pathway

Cisplatin (CDDP) may induce apoptosis of renal tubular epithelial cells (RTEC) and cause CDDP-induced acute kidney injury (CAKI) during cancer treatment, but yet lack of preventive measures and effective treatment. As a new Chinese herbal preparation, Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) has been found to mitigate CDDP-induced CAKI through elevating the expression of HIF-1α in the rat model, according to the data from our previous works. However, the underlying link between HIF-1α and apoptosis has not been well elucidated. The current study as a follow-up work, was aimed to reveal if PNS improves CAKI through HIF-1α-dependent apoptosis. A stably HIF-1α-knockdown human proximal tubular epithelial cell (HK-2) line was established by transfecting a HIF-1α-siRNA into HK-2 cells. Cell viability, mitochondrial function, cell apoptosis ratio and the expression of apoptosis-associated proteins (Cyt C, Bcl2, Bax, caspases 3) were determined. In order to elucidate the underlying mechanism, the expression of HIF-1α and BNIP3 were assessed. Our results showed that treatment of PNS rescued the cell viability of CDDP-injured HK-2 or HIF-1α-knockdown HK-2 cells, and increased the expression levels of ATP and MMP in HK-2 or HIF-1α-knockdown HK-2 cells which were reduced by CDDP. Moreover, PNS treatment decreased the CDDP or CDDP plus HIF-1α-knockdown-induced elevation of apoptosis and apoptosis-associated protein expressions. These findings demonstrate that PNS reduces CAKI through increasing HIF-1α to inhibit mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Hence, we suggest PNS as a protective and therapeutic new drug for CDDP treatment of cancers, which might have significant meaning of further research and application potential.

Xuesaitong exerts long-term neuroprotection for stroke recovery by inhibiting the ROCKII pathway, in vitro and in vivo

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Xuesaitong (XST) is a traditional Chinese medicine injection with neuroprotective properties and has been extensively used to treat stroke for many years. The main component of XST is Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS), which is the main extract of the Chinese herbal medicine Panax notoginseng.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, we investigated whether XST provided long-term neuroprotection by inhibiting neurite outgrowth inhibitor-A (Nogo-A) and the ROCKII pathway in experimental rats after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and in SH-SY5Y cells exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rats with permanent MCAO were administered XST, Y27632, XST plus Y27632, and nimodipine for 14 and 28 days. Successful MCAO onset was confirmed by 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining. Neurological deficit score (NDS) was used to assess neurological impairment. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining and immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis of synaptophysin (SYN) and postsynaptic density protein-95 (PSD-95) were performed to evaluate cerebral ischemic injury and the neuroprotective capability of XST. Nogo-A levels and the ROCKII pathway were detected by IHC analysis, western blotting, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) to explore the protective mechanism of XST. OGD/R model was established in SH-SY5Y cells. Cell counting kit 8 (CCK8) was applied to detect the optimum OGD time and XST concentration. The expression levels Nogo-A and ROCKII pathway were determined using western blotting.

RESULTS

Our results showed that XST reduced neurological dysfunction and pathological damage, promoted weight gain and synaptic regeneration, reduced Nogo-A mRNA and protein levels, and inhibited the ROCKII pathway in MCAO rats. CCK8 assay displayed that the optimal OGD time and optimal XST concentration were 7 h and 20 μg/mL respectively in SH-SY5Y cells. XST could evidently inhibit OGD/R-induced Nogo-A protein expression and ROCKII pathway activation in SH-SY5Y cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study suggested that XST exerted long-term neuroprotective effects that assisted in stroke recovery, possibly through inhibition of the ROCKII pathway.

Effect of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) saponins on meat color and myoglobin reduction status in the longissimus thoracis muscle of growing lambs

The effect of alfalfa saponins (AS) supplementation on the meat quality especially the color for growing lamb was investigated. Fifty Hu male lambs with body weights (BW, 19.21 ± 0.45 kg) were divided into five groups and supplemented AS with 0, 500, 1,000, 2,000, and 4,000 mg/kg of dietary dry matter intake. After 90 days, all lambs were slaughtered. The longissimus thoracis muscle in lamb displayed significant changes in the content of intramuscular fat, especially n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and drip loss within AS treatment (p < .05) between control and treatments groups. Redness (a*) significantly improved in both 0-day and 7-day storage with the AS supplementation coupled with the percentage of met-myoglobin reduction (p < .05). The redness (a*) change may result from improved met-myoglobin reducing activity, antioxidant enzymes, lactate dehydrogenase, and succinate dehydrogenase (p < .05) by AS supplementation in muscle. These enzymes may help to protect mitochondria function and reduce met-myoglobin, which bring a bright and red meat color.

Dynamic changes in chemical compositions and anti-acetylcholinesterase activity associated with steaming process of stem-leaf saponins of Panax notoginseng

Stem-leaf saponins (SLSs), the total saponins from aerial part of P. notoginseng, are by-products of notoginseng, a famous traditional Chinese medicine. SLSs have been used as a health functional food in China, but its mild effects limited clinical applications in diseases. Inspired by steaming of notoginseng to enhance its pharmacological activity, a steaming protocol was developed to treat SLSs. SLSs were steamed at 100, 120, and 140°C for 1, 2, 3, and 4 h, respectively. The ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight MS and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem triple quadrupole mass spectrometry were applied to analyze the dynamic changes in chemical compositions. The anti-acetylcholinesterase activity of steamed SLS were assessed in vitro by directly determining the metabolic product of acetylcholine/choline. The components of SLSs were significantly changed by steaming. A total of 117 saponins and aglycones were characterized, and 35 of them were newly generated. The anti-acetylcholinesterase activity of steamed SLSs gradually increased with the extension of steamed time and the increase of steamed temperature and reached the maximum after 140°C for 3 h. Furthermore, ginsenosides Rk1 and Rg5, the main components of steamed SLSs, showed dose-dependent anti-acetylcholinesterase activities with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀ ) values of 26.88 ± 0.53 μm and 22.41 ± 1.31 μm that were only 1.8- and 1.5-fold higher than that of donepezil with IC₅₀ values of 14.93 ± 4.17 μM, respectively.

Traditional uses, chemical diversity and biological activities of Panax L. (Araliaceae): A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax L. (Araliaceae) is globally-recognized plant resource suitable for the globalization of traditional Chinese medicines. It has traditionally been used as tonic agents in various ethnomedicinal systems of East Asia, especially in China. It is often used to regulate bodily functions and considered as adjuvant therapy for tumor, resuscitation of traumatic hemorrhagic shock, etc. AIM OF THIS REVIEW: This review systematically summarized the information on distributions, botanical characteristics, traditional uses, chemical components and biological activities of the genus Panax, in order to explore and exploit the therapeutic potential of this plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The available information about genus Panax was collected via the online search on Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, Baidu Scholar, Science Direct, China National Knowledge Infrastructure and Springer search. The keywords used include Panax, saponin, secondary metabolites, chemical components, biological activity, pharmacology, traditional medicinal uses, safety and other related words. The Plant List (www.theplantlist.org) and Catalogue of Life: 2019 Annual Checklist (www.catalogueoflife.org/col/) databases were used to provide the scientific names, subspecies classification and distribution information of Panax.

RESULTS

Panax is widely assessed concerning its phytochemistry and biological activities. To date, at least 748 chemical compounds from genus Panax were isolated, including saponins, flavonoids, polysaccharides, steroids and phenols. Among them, triterpenoid saponins and polysaccharides were the representative active ingredients of Panax plants, which have been widely investigated. Modern pharmacological studies showed that these compounds exhibited a wide range of biological activities in vitro and in vivo including antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory, hepatorenal protective, neuroprotective, immunoregulatory, cardioprotective and antidiabetic activities. Many studies also confirmed that the mechanisms of organ-protective were closely related to molecular signaling pathways, the expression of related proteins and antioxidant reactions. To sum up, genus Panax has high medicinal and social value, deserving further investigation.

CONCLUSIONS

The genus Panax is very promising to be fully utilized in the development of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. However, there is a lack of in-depth studies on ethnomedicinal uses of Panax plants. In addition, further studies of single chemical component should be performed based on the diversity of chemical structure, significant biological activities and clinical application. If the bioactive molecules and multicomponent interactions are discovered, it will be of great significance to the clinical application of Panax plants. It is an urgent requirement to carry out detailed phytochemical, pharmacology and clinical research on Panax classical prescriptions for the establishment of modern medication guidelines. Exploring the molecular basis of herbal synergistic actions may provide a new understanding of the complex disease mechanisms and accelerate the process of pharmaceutical development.

Genes Induced by Panax Notoginseng in a Rodent Model of Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Stroke is a cerebrovascular disease that results in decreased blood flow. Although Panax notoginseng (PN), a Chinese herbal medicine, has been proven to promote stroke recovery, its molecular mechanism remains unclear. In this study, middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was induced in rats with thrombi generated by thread and subsequently treated with PN. After that, staining with 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride was employed to evaluate the infarcted area, and electron microscopy was used to assess ultrastructural changes of the neurovascular unit. RNA-Seq was performed to determine the differential expressed genes (DEGs) which were then verified by qPCR. In total, 817 DEGs were identified to be related to the therapeutic effect of PN on stroke recovery. Further analysis by Gene Oncology analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes revealed that most of these genes were involved in the biological function of nerves and blood vessels through the regulation of neuroactive live receptor interactions of PI3K-Akt, Rap1, cAMP, and cGMP-PKG signaling, which included in the 18 pathways identified in our research, of which, 9 were reported firstly that related to PN's neuroprotective effect. This research sheds light on the potential molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of PN on stroke recovery.

Panax notoginseng saponins and their applications in nervous system disorders: a narrative review

Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS), also called "sanqi" in Chinese, are the main active ingredients which are extracted from the root of Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F. H. Chen., and they have been traditionally used as a medicine in China for hundreds of years with magical medicinal value. PNS have varied biological functions, such as anti-inflammatory effects, anti-cancer effects, anti-neurotoxicity, and the prevention of diabetes. Nervous system disorders, a spectrum of diseases originating from the nervous system, have a significant impact on all aspects of patients' lives. Due to the dramatic gains in global life expectancy, the prevalence of nervous system disorders is growing gradually. Even if the mechanism of these diseases is still not clear, they are mainly characterized by neuronal dysfunction and neuronal death. Consequently, it is essential to find measures to slow down or prevent the onset of these diseases. At present, traditional Chinese medicines, as well as their active components, have gained widespread popularity in preventing and treating these diseases because of their merits, especially PNS. In this review, we predominantly address the recent advances in PNS researches and their biological functions, and highlight their applications in nervous system disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and stroke.

Chemical constituents of Panax ginseng and Panax notoginseng explain why they differ in therapeutic efficacy

Panax ginseng (Meyer) and Panax notoginseng (Burkill), belonging to the family Araliaceae, are used worldwide as medicinal and functional herbs. Numerous publications over the past decades have revealed that both P. notoginseng and P. ginseng contain important bioactive ingredients such as ginsenosides and exert multiple pharmacological effects on nervous system and immune diseases. However, based on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory, their applications clearly differ as ginseng reinforces vital energy and notoginseng promotes blood circulation. In this article, we review the similarities and differences between ginseng and notoginseng in terms of their chemical composition and pharmacological effects. Their chemical comparisons indicate that ginseng contains more polysaccharides and amino acids, while notoginseng has more saponins, volatile oil, and polyacetylenes. Regarding pharmacological effects, ginseng exhibits better protective effects on cardiovascular disease, nerve disease, cancer, and diabetes mellitus, whereas notoginseng displays a superior protective effect on cerebrovascular disease. The evidence presented in this review facilitates further research and clinical applications of these two herbs, and exploration of the relationship between the chemical components and disease efficacy may be the critical next step.

Using mRNA deep sequencing to analyze differentially expressed genes during Panax notoginseng saponin treatment of ischemic stroke

Treatment with Panax notoginseng saponin (PNS) can prevent neurological damage in middle cerebral artery occlusion model rats to promote recovery after a stroke. However, the exact molecular mechanisms are unknown and require further study. In the present study, mRNA sequencing was employed to investigate differential gene expression between model and sham groups, and between model and PNS-treated groups. Enrichment of gene data was performed using Gene Ontology analysis and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes database. Hub genes were identified and networks were constructed using Cytoscape that were further verified by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. A total of 1,104 genes of interest were found, which included 690 upregulated and 414 downregulated genes that were identified when the model was compared with the sham group. Additionally, 817 genes of interest, which included 390 upregulated and 427 downregulated genes, were identified when the PNS-treated group was compared with the model group. There were 303 overlapping genes of interest between the analysis of model to sham groups, and the analysis of model to PNS-treated groups. The top 10 genes from the 303 aberrantly expressed genes of interest included ubiquitin conjugating enzyme E2 variant 2, small ubiquitin-related modifier 1, small RNA binding exonuclease protection factor La, Finkel-Biskis-Reilly murine sarcoma virus (FBR-MuSV) ubiquitously expressed, centrosomal protein 290 kDa, DNA-directed RNA polymerase II subunit K, cullin-4B, matrin-3 and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2. In conclusion, these genes may be important in the underlying mechanism of PNS treatment in ischemic stroke. Additionally, the present data provided novel insight into the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke.

Neuroprotective Effects of Medicinal Plants in Cerebral Hypoxia and Anoxia: A Systematic Review

Background:

Hypoxia and anoxia are dangerous and sometimes irreversible complications in the central nervous system (CNS), which in some cases lead to death.

Objective:

The aim of this review was to investigate the neuroprotective effects of medicinal plants in cerebral hypoxia and anoxia.

Methods:

The word hypox*, in combination with some herbal terms such as medicinal plant, phyto* and herb*, was used to search for relevant publications indexed in the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) and PubMed from 2000-2019.

Results:

Certain medicinal plants and herbal derivatives can exert their protective effects in several ways. The most important mechanisms are the inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), production of NO, inhibition of both hypoxia-inducible factor 1α and tumor necrosis factor-alpha activation, and reduction of extracellular glutamate, N-Methyl-D-aspartic and intracellular Ca (2+). In addition, they have an antioxidant activity and can adjust the expression of genes related to oxidant generation or antioxidant capacity. These plants can also inhibit lipid peroxidation, up-regulate superoxide dismutase activity and inhibit the content of malondialdehyde and lactate dehydrogenase. Moreover, they also have protective effects against cytotoxicity through down-regulation of the proteins that causes apoptosis, anti-excitatory activity, inhibition of apoptosis signaling pathway, reduction of pro-apoptotic proteins, and endoplasmic reticulum stress that causes apoptosis during hypoxia, increasing anti-apoptotic protein, inhibition of protein tyrosine kinase activation, decreasing proteases activity and DNA fragmentation, and upregulation of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase.

Conclusion:

The results indicated that medicinal plants and their compounds mainly exert their neuroprotective effects in hypoxia via regulating proteins that are related to antioxidant, anti-apoptosis and anti-inflammatory activities.

Panax notoginseng for Cerebral Ischemia: A Systematic Review

Panax notoginseng is the most widely used Chinese medicinal herb for the prevention and treatment of ischemic diseases. Its main active ingredients are saponins, including ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside Rg1, and notoginsenoside R1, among others. This review provides an up-to-date overview on the pharmacological roles of P. notoginseng constituents in cerebral ischemia. The saponins of P. notoginseng induce a variety of pharmacological effects in the multiscale mechanisms of cerebral ischemic pathophysiology, including anti-inflammatory activity, reduction of oxidative stress, anti-apoptosis, inhibition of amino acid excitotoxicity, reduction of intracellular calcium overload, protection of mitochondria, repairing the blood-brain barrier, and facilitation of cell regeneration. Regarding cell regeneration, P. notoginseng not only promotes the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells, but also protects neurons, endothelial cells and astrocytes in cerebral ischemia. In conclusion, P. notoginseng may treat cerebrovascular diseases through multiple pharmacological effects, and the most critical ones need further investigation.

25-OH-PPD inhibits hypertrophy on diabetic cardiomyopathy via the PI3k/Akt/GSK-3β signaling pathway

The present study investigated the inhibitory effects and the associated mechanism of the compound 25-OH-PPD (PPD) on cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis and inflammation. The signaling pathways associated with diabetic mellitus cardiomyopathy (DMCM) were investigated using a rat model. DMCM Sprague-Dawley rats were induced by injection of streptozotocin. The animals were divided into 5 groups as follows: Normal group (NG group), diabetic group, PPD treatment group, PPD/LY294002 group (inhibitor of PI3K/Akt) and PPD/LiCl group [inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase (GSK) 3β]. The studies were carried out during the 12 weeks following induction of diabetes and the levels of plasma brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), creatine phosphokinase isoenzyme (CK-MB) were measured. In addition, the volume of myocardial collagen fraction (CVF) was tested. The expression levels of the inflammatory cytokines, including transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), cell adhesion molecules α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and vascular adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) and associated signaling proteins (Akt, GSK-3β) were measured by biochemical analyses. The levels of BNP and CK-MB, the volume of CVF, the expression levels of TGF-β1, CTGF, α-SMA and VCAM-1 in the diabetic group were higher compared with those of the normal control group (P<0.05). Conversely, the levels of these molecules were significantly decreased in the PPD treatment groups (P<0.05). The aforementioned effects were partially eliminated in the PPD/LY294002 and PPD/LiCl groups. In addition, PPD treatment significantly increased the expression levels of p-Akt and decreased the levels of phosphorylated GSK-3β compared with those of the DMCM group (P<0.05). The data demonstrated that the protective effects of 25-OH-PPD against DMCM may be attributed to the PI3k/Akt/GSK-3β signaling pathway, via the suppression of the α-SMA/VCAM axis and the downregulation of TGF-β1 and CTGF expression.

Panax notoginseng saponin R1 modulates TNF-α/NF-κB signaling and attenuates allergic airway inflammation in asthma

BACKGROUD

Panax notoginseng saponin R1 (PNS-R1) is one of the most important chemical monomers derived from the panax notoginseng, and our previous study found that PNS-R1 reduced glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis in asthmatic airway epithelial cells. Thus, in this study, we explored the effects of the PNS-R1 on inflammation of allergic asthma.

METHODS

The asthmatic mice were administered 15 mg/kg PNS-R1 by intraperitoneal injection three days before sensitized to OVA. The effects of PNS-R1 on asthmatic mice were detected by airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation, mucus hypersecretion and inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-13, IL-4, IL-5, IL-8 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were studied. We also treated human bronchial epithelial cells (16HBE) with house dust mites (HDM) and then detected the secretion of cellular inflammatory factors (IL-13 and TNF-α). Western blot and immunofluorescence were used to examine the effect of PNS-R1 on TNF-α/NF-κB pathway. TNF-α/NF-κB/IKK signal pathway activator was used in PNS-R1-treated asthmatic mice.

RESULTS

PNS-R1 significantly reduced the airway inflammatory, mucus secretion and hyperresponsiveness in asthma model. It also reduced the levels of IL-13, IL-4, IL-5 and IL-8 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and IgE and OVA-specific IgE in serum for asthma mice. PNS-R1 reduced IL-13 and TNF-α secretion in HDM-treated 16HBE cells. In addition, PNS-R1 suppressed TNF-α/NF-κB pathway in both asthmatic mice and 16HBE. Activation of NF-kB pathway reversed the therapeutic effect of PNS-R1 on asthmatic mice.

CONCLUSION

The results indicated that PNS-R1 effectively suppresses allergic airway inflammation of asthma partly through TNF-α/NF-κB pathway. PNS-R1 may play a potential role in allergic asthma treatment in the future.

In Vitro Evaluation of the Neuroprotective Effect of Panax notoginseng Saponins by Activating the EGFR/PI3K/AKT Pathway

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated whether Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) extracted from Panax notoginseng (Bruk.) F. H. Chen played a neuroprotective role by affecting the EGFR/PI3K/AKT pathway in oxygen-glucose deprived (OGD) SH-SY5Y cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Different groups of OGD SH-SY5Y cells were treated with varying doses of PNS, PNS + AG1478 (a specific inhibitor of EGFR), or AG1478 for 16 hours. CCK8, Annexin V-FITC/PI apoptosis analysis, and LDH release analysis were used to determine cell viability, apoptosis rate, and amounts of LDH. Quantitative real-time PCR (q-RT-PCR) and western blotting were used to measure mRNA and proteins levels of p-EGFR/EGFR, p-PI3K/PI3K, and p-AKT/AKT in SH-SY5Y cells subjected to OGD.

RESULTS

PNS significantly enhanced cell viability, reduced apoptosis, and weakened cytotoxicity by inhibiting the release of LDH. The mRNA expression profiles of EGFR, PI3K, and AKT showed no difference between model and other groups. Additionally, ratios of p-EGFR, p-PI3K, and p-AKT to EGFR, PI3K, and AKT proteins expression, respectively, all increased significantly.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that PNS enhanced neuroprotective effects by activating the EGFR/PI3K/AKT pathway and elevating phosphorylation levels in OGD SH-SY5Y cells.

Hormesis and Ginseng: Ginseng Mixtures and Individual Constituents Commonly Display Hormesis Dose Responses, Especially for Neuroprotective Effects

This paper demonstrates that ginseng mixtures and individual ginseng chemical constituents commonly induce hormetic dose responses in numerous biological models for endpoints of biomedical and clinical relevance, typically providing a mechanistic framework. The principal focus of ginseng hormesis-related research has been directed toward enhancing neuroprotection against conditions such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases, stroke damage, as well as enhancing spinal cord and peripheral neuronal damage repair and reducing pain. Ginseng was also shown to reduce symptoms of diabetes, prevent cardiovascular system damage, protect the kidney from toxicities due to immune suppressant drugs, and prevent corneal damage, amongst other examples. These findings complement similar hormetic-based chemoprotective reports for other widely used dietary-type supplements such as curcumin, ginkgo biloba, and green tea. These findings, which provide further support for the generality of the hormetic dose response in the biomedical literature, have potentially important public health and clinical implications.

Ginsenoside Rg1 fails to rescue PTSD-like behaviors in a mice model of single-prolonged stress

Previous studies reported that ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) exerts antidepressant-like effect in animal models of depression. However, its effect on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) remains elusive; PTSD is a common and costly psychiatric condition with negative cognitive and affective dysfunctions, such as anxiety and depression. In this study, we evaluated the role of Rg1 in a validated mice model of PTSD induced by single-prolonged stress (SPS). Sertraline, one of the FDA-approved medications for PTSD was used as a positive control. Our results showed that SPS exposure led to increased anxiety-like and despair-like behaviors. SPS exposure also caused enhanced contextual fear memory and overgeneralization of learned fear. Sertraline significantly ameliorated those abnormal behaviors induced by SPS, while Rg1 did not. Meanwhile, we found that sertraline but not Rg1 blocked the suppressive effect of SPS on adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Consistently, we found that SPS elevated adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) level in the serum, which was inhibited by sertraline but not Rg1. Our results thus demonstrate that Rg1 at a dose used to treat depression may not be effective to rescue behavioral deficits associated with PTSD.

Neuroprotective effects of notoginsenoside R1 by upregulating Trx-1 on acrylamide-induced neurotoxicity in PC12

Acrylamide (ACR) is a water-soluble chemical that is commonly used in chemical and cosmetic manufacture. Many studies have been carried out to investigate the neurotoxicity mechanisms of ACR, resulting in oxidative stress and nerve damages. One of the commonly used traditional Chinese medicines is notoginsenoside R1 (NR1). However, its mitochondrial-mediated apoptotic effect caused in ACR-induced neurotoxicity has not been reported. Our results have shown that NR1 resisted the neurotoxicity induced by ACR by upregulating the levels of thioredoxin-1 (Trx-1) in Rat adrenal chromaffin cell tumor (PC12) cells. NR1 inhibited the increase in levels of Bax, caspase-9, and caspase-3, which was instigated by ACR. Moreover, NR1 inhibited the decrease in levels of B-cell lymphoma 2 and Trx-1 induced by ACR. The downregulation of Trx-1 aggravated the mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis and increased the expression of the above molecules, which was induced by ACR. In contrast, overexpression of Trx-1 attenuated the mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis and inhibited the expression of the mentioned molecules induced by ACR. Our results suggested that NR1 protected ACR-induced mitochondrial apoptosis by upregulating Trx-1.

Analytical methods and biological activities of Panax notoginseng saponins: Recent trends

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F. H. Chen, also called Sanqi, is a widely used traditional Chinese medicine, which has long history used as herbal medicines. It is currently an important medicinal material in China, holding the first place in the sale volume of the whole patent medicines market in China, and the market size of the single species has exceeded 10 billion yuan. In addition, P. notoginseng is an important constituent part of many famous Chinese patent medicines, such as Compound Danshen Dripping Pills and Yunnan Baiyao. P. notoginseng saponins (PNSs), which are the major active components of P. notoginseng, are a kind of chemical mixture containing different dammarane-type saponins. Many studies show that PNSs have been extensively used in medical research or applications, such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, acute lung injury, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. In addition, various PNS preparations, such as injections and capsules, have been made commercially available and are widely applied in clinical practice.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

Since the safety and efficacy of compounds are related to their qualitative and quantitative analyses, this review briefly summarizes the analytic approaches for PNSs and their biological effects developed in the last decade.

METHODOLOGY

This review conducted a systematic search in electronic databases, such as Pubmed, Google Scholar, SciFinder, ISI Web of Science, and CNKI, since 2009. The information provided in this review is based on peer-reviewed papers and patents in either English or Chinese.

RESULTS

At present, the chromatographic technique remains the most extensively used approach for the identification or quantitation of PNSs, coupled with different detectors, among which the difference mainly lies in their sensitivity and specificity for analyzing various compounds. It is well-known that PNSs have traditionally strong activity on cardiovascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis, intracerebral hemorrhage, or brain injury. The recent studies showed that PNSs also responded to osteoporosis, cancers, diabetes, and drug toxicity. However, some other studies also showed that some PNSs injections and special PNS components might lead to some biological toxicity under certain dosages.

CONCLUSION

This review may be used as a basis for further research in the field of quantitative and qualitative analyses, and is expected to provide updated and valuable insights into the potential medicinal applications of PNSs.

Nucleic Acid Vaccine Targeting Nogo-66 Receptor and Paired Immunoglobulin-Like Receptor B as an Immunotherapy Strategy for Spinal Cord Injury in Rats

Nogo-66 receptor (NgR) and paired immunoglobulin-like receptor B (PirB) are two common receptors of various myelin-associated inhibitors (MAIs) and, thus, play an important role in MAIs-induced inhibitory signalling of regeneration following spinal cord injury (SCI). Based on the concept of protective autoimmunity, vaccine approaches could induce the production of antibodies against inhibitors in myelin, such as using purified myelin, spinal cord homogenates, or MAIs receptor NgR, in order to block the inhibitory effects and promote functional recovery in SCI models. However, due to the complication of the molecules and the mechanisms involved in MAIs-mediated inhibitory signalling, these immunotherapy strategies have yielded inconsistent outcomes. Therefore, we hypothesized that the choice and modification of self-antigens, and co-regulating multiple targets, may be more effective in repairing the injured spinal cord and improving functional recovery. In this study, NgR and PirB were selected to construct a double-targeted granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor-NgR-PirB (GMCSF-NgR-PirB) nucleic acid vaccine, and investigate the efficacy of this immunotherapy in a spinal cord injury model in rats. The results showed that this vaccination could stimulate the production of antibodies against NgR and PirB, block the inhibitory effects mediated by various MAIs, and promote nerve regeneration and functional recovery after spinal cord injury. These findings suggest that nucleic acid vaccination against NgR and PirB can be a promising therapeutic strategy for SCI and other central nervous system diseases and injuries.

Using 3D-UPLC-DAD and a new method-verification by adding mixture standard compounds to determine the fingerprint and eight active components of Naoluoxintong decoction

Naoluoxintong decoction (NLXTD) is a traditional Chinese formula which has been used for the management of ischemic stroke in China for two hundred years. In this study, we developed a comprehensive and reliable analytical method to qualitatively analyze the components in NLXTD. This novel method was based on three-dimensional ultra-fast high performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector (3D-UPLC-DAD) with an additional component validation method via incorporation of the mixture standard compounds during the verification step. In addition, the relationship between active components and "Monarch drug, Minster drug, Assistant drug, Guide drug" were determined. Our results showed that gradient elution with the mobile phase of 0.02% formic acid and methanol was the optimum condition to separate peaks. A total of 35 common peaks were established by comparing ten batches of NLXTD, and eight components were identified, including Calycosin, Calycosin-7-O-β-d-glucoside and Ononin in Astragali radix (Monarch drug); Ligustrazine in Chuanxiong Rhizoma (Minster drug); 4-Hydroxbenzyl alcohol and Parishin A in Gastrodiae rhizome (Assistant drug); Ferulic acid in Angelicae sinensis radix (Guide drug). The validation method of verification by adding mixture standard compounds combined with 3D-UPLC-DAD method, with the merits of greater resolution, higher speed of analysis and higher sensitivity, provided a semi-quantitative and qualitative analysis method to assess traditional Chinese medicinal prescription consisting of many bio-active components. Finally, our study has provided systemic and scientific evidence to explain the relationship between the bio-active components in the NLXTD and traditional Chinese medicine theory.

Panax notoginseng Saponins Attenuate Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation/Reoxygenation-Induced Injury in Human SH-SY5Y Cells by Regulating the Expression of Inflammatory Factors through miR-155

Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) have been widely used in China to treat stroke. Accumulating evidence has found that microRNA (miR)-155 plays critical roles in the pathology of ischemic stroke. Here we investigated whether PNS plays a protective effect against oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R)-induced focal inflammation and injury in SH-SY5Y cells by regulating miR-155 expression. Treatment with PNS at a concentration less than 160 µg/mL had no effect on the proliferation of SH-SY5Y cell. In OGD/R-induced SH-SY5Y cells, 160 µg/mL PNS treatment promoted cell proliferation and cell cycle progression, as well as decreased inhibited apoptosis and miR-155 expression. However, overexpression of miR-155 attenuated the promotion effects of PNS on cell proliferation and cell cycle, apoptosis inhibition in OGD/R-induced SH-SY5Y cells. Moreover, 160 µg/mL PNS treatment decreased the levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in OGD/R-induced SH-SY5Y cells, whereas overexpression of miR-155 reversed PNS-induced decreases in the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in OGD/R-treated SH-SY5Y cells. In conclusion, PNS attenuated OGD/R-induced injury in human undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells by regulating the expression of inflammatory factors through miR-155.

Panax notoginseng Saponins Protect Cerebral Microvascular Endothelial Cells against Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation/Reperfusion-Induced Barrier Dysfunction via Activation of PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 Antioxidant Signaling Pathway

Oxidative stress plays a critical role in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption. Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) possess efficient antioxidant activity and have been used in the treatment of cerebral ischemic stroke in China. In this study, we determined the protective effects of PNS on BBB integrity and investigated the underlying mechanism in cerebral microvascular endothelial cells (bEnd.3) exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R). MTT and LDH release assays revealed that PNS mitigated the OGD/R-induced cell injury in a dose-dependent manner. TEER and paracellular permeability assays demonstrated that PNS alleviated the OGD/R-caused disruption of BBB integrity. Fluorescence probe DCFH-DA showed that PNS suppressed ROS generation in OGD/R-treated cells. Immunofluorescence and western blot analysis indicated that PNS inhibited the degradation of tight junction proteins triggered by OGD/R. Moreover, mechanism investigations suggested that PNS increased the phosphorylation of Akt, the activity of nuclear Nrf2, and the expression of downstream antioxidant enzyme HO-1. All the effects of PNS could be reversed by co-treatment with PI3K inhibitor LY294002. Taken together, these observations suggest that PNS may act as an extrinsic regulator that activates Nrf2 antioxidant signaling depending on PI3K/Akt pathway and protects against OGD/R-induced BBB disruption in vitro.

Pien-Tze-Huang protects cerebral ischemic injury by inhibiting neuronal apoptosis in acute ischemic stroke rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Pien-Tze-Huang (PZH) is a famous formula of traditional Chinese medicine used to treating stroke. However, the protective effect of PZH and its mechanisms in acute ischemic stroke remain to be explored.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the protective effect of PZH on neuronal apoptosis in acute cerebral ischemic injury rats and explore its underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of PZH were studied in acute ischemic stroke rats induced by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion, and the mitochondria-mediated apoptotic proteins including cytochrome C (Cyt C), Bax, Bcl-xl, P53, caspase-3, and caspase-9 as well as AKT and glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3β) were assessed.

RESULTS

Four days of PZH treatment (180 mg/kg) could significantly reduce cerebral infarct volume, improve neurological deficit, attenuate inflammatory response, and inhibit neuronal apoptosis in acute ischemic stroke rats. Moreover, PZH treatment significantly decreased cytosolic Cyt C, Bax, P53, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved caspase-9 levels, but elevated mitochondrial Cyt C and Bcl-xl levels. PZH treatment also increased phosphorylation of AKT and GSK-3β.

CONCLUSION

PZH potently protects the brain from cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury in vivo, and inhibiting mitochondria-mediated neuronal apoptosis as well as attenuating inflammatory responses may be involved in this effect. This study provides experimental basis of PZH in treating acute cerebral ischemic stroke, which would provide some novel insights for its prevention and treatment of ischemic stroke.

Panax Notoginseng Saponins: A Review of Its Mechanisms of Antidepressant or Anxiolytic Effects and Network Analysis on Phytochemistry and Pharmacology

Panax notoginseng (Burk) F. H. Chen, as traditional Chinese medicine, has a long history of high clinical value, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidation, inhibition of platelet aggregation, regulation of blood glucose and blood pressure, inhibition of neuronal apoptosis, and neuronal protection, and its main ingredients are Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS). Currently, Panax notoginseng (Burk) F. H. Chen may improve mental function, have anti-insomnia and anti-depression effects, alleviate anxiety, and decrease neural network excitation. However, the underlying effects and the mechanisms of Panax notoginseng (Burk) F. H. Chen and its containing chemical constituents (PNS) on these depression-related or anxiety-related diseases has not been completely established. This review summarized the antidepressant or anxiolytic effects and mechanisms of PNS and analyzed network targets of antidepressant or anxiolytic actions with network pharmacology tools to provide directions and references for further pharmacological studies and new ideas for clinical treatment of nervous system diseases and drug studies and development. The review showed PNS and its components may exert these effects through regulating neurotransmitter mechanism (5-HT, DA, NE), modulation of the gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) neurotransmission, glutamatergic system, hypo-thalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and its intracellular signaling pathways in the central nervous system; and produce neuronal protection by anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidation, or inhibition of neuronal apoptosis, or platelet aggregation and its intracellular signaling pathways. Network target analysis indicated PNS and its components also may have anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects, which leads to the preservation of brain nerves, and regulate the activity and secretion of nerve cells, exerting anti-depression and anxiolytic effects, which may provide new directions for further in-depth researches of related mechanisms.

Stereoisomers of Saponins in Panax notoginseng (Sanqi): A Review

Panax notoginseng (Sanqi), a traditional Chinese medical drug which has been applied to medical use for over four centuries, contains high content of dammarane-type tetracyclic triterpenoid saponins. A number of stereoisomeric dammarane-type saponins exist in this precious herb, and some are particularly regarded as “biomarkers” in processed notoginseng. Contemporary researches have indicated that some saponin stereoisomers may show stereospecific pharmacological activities, such as anti-tumor, antioxidative, anti-photoaging, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and neuro-protective activities, as well as stereoselective effects on ion channel current regulation, cardiovascular system, and immune system. The current review provides a comprehensive overview of chemical compositions of raw and processed P. notoginseng with a particular emphasis on saponin stereoisomers. Besides, the pharmacological and pharmacokinetic researches, as well as determination and biotechnological preparation methods of stereoisomeric saponins in notoginseng are discussed extensively.

Pre-treated Populus tomentiglandulosa extract inhibits neuronal loss and alleviates gliosis in the gerbil hippocampal CA1 area induced by transient global cerebral ischemia

The genus Populus (poplar) belonging to the Salicaceae family has been used in traditional medicine, and its several species show various pharmacological properties including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. No study regarding protective effects of Populus species against cerebral ischemia has been reported. Therefore, in the present study, we examined neuroprotective effects of ethanol extract from Populus tomentiglandulosa (Korea poplar) in the hippocampal cornu ammonis (CA1) area of gerbils subjected to 5 minutes of transient global cerebral ischemia. Pretreatment with 200 mg/kg of P. tomentiglandulosa extract effectively protected CA1 pyramidal neurons from transient global cerebral ischemia. In addition, glial fibrillary acidic protein immunoreactive astrocytes and ionized calcium binding adapter molecule 1 immunoreactive microglia were significantly diminished in the ischemic CA1 area by pretreatment with 200 mg/kg of P. tomentiglandulosa extract. Briefly, our results indicate that pretreatment with P. tomentiglandulosa extract protects neurons from transient cerebral ischemic injury and diminish cerebral ischemia-induced reactive gliosis in ischemic CA1 area. Based on these results, we suggest that P. tomentiglandulosa can be used as a potential candidate for prevention of ischemic injury.

Protective Effect of Panax notoginseng Root Water Extract against Influenza A Virus Infection by Enhancing Antiviral Interferon-Mediated Immune Responses and Natural Killer Cell Activity

Influenza is an acute respiratory illness caused by the influenza A virus, which causes economic losses and social disruption mainly by increasing hospitalization and mortality rates among the elderly and people with chronic diseases. Influenza vaccines are the most effective means of preventing seasonal influenza, but can be completely ineffective if there is an antigenic mismatch between the seasonal vaccine virus and the virus circulating in the community. In addition, influenza viruses resistant to antiviral drugs are emerging worldwide. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop new vaccines and antiviral drugs against these viruses. In this study, we conducted in vitro and in vivo analyses of the antiviral effect of Panax notoginseng root (PNR), which is used as an herbal medicine and nutritional supplement in Korea and China. We confirmed that PNR significantly prevented influenza virus infection in a concentration-dependent manner in mouse macrophages. In addition, PNR pretreatment inhibited viral protein (PB1, PB2, HA, NA, M1, PA, M2, and NP) and viral mRNA (NS1, HA, PB2, PA, NP, M1, and M2) expression. PNR pretreatment also increased the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines [tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 6] and interferon (IFN)-beta and the phosphorylation of type-I IFN-related proteins (TANK-binding kinase 1, STAT1, and IRF3) in vitro. In mice exposed to the influenza A H1N1 virus, PNR treatment decreased mortality by 90% and prevented weight loss (by approximately 10%) compared with the findings in untreated animals. In addition, splenocytes from PNR-administered mice displayed significantly enhanced natural killer (NK) cell activity against YAC-1 cells. Taking these findings together, PNR stimulates an antiviral response in murine macrophages and mice that protects against viral infection, which may be attributable to its ability to stimulate NK cell activity. Further investigations are needed to reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying the protective effects of PNR and its components against influenza virus A infection.

Panax notoginseng saponins mitigate cisplatin induced nephrotoxicity by inducing mitophagy via HIF-1α

We investigated the role of HIF-1α in the mitigation of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity by Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) in a rat model. Serum creatinine (Scr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and urinary N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) levels were all elevated in cisplatin treated rats. PNS reduced Scr, BUN and NAG levels in the presence or absence of the HIF-1α inhibitor 2-methoxyestradiol (2ME2). PNS also reduced the high tubular injury scores, which corresponded to renal tubular damage in cisplatin-treated rats and which were exacerbated by 2ME2. Renal tissues from PNS-treated rats showed increased HIF-1α mRNA and nuclear localized HIF-1α protein. Moreover, PNS treatment increased BNIP3 mRNA as well as LC3-II, BNIP3 and Beclin-1 proteins and the LC3-II/LC3-I ratio in rat renal tissues. This suggested that PNS treatment enhanced HIF-1α, which in turn increased autophagy. This was confirmed in transmission electron micrographs of renal tissues that showed autophagosomes in PNS-treated renal tissues. These findings demonstrate that PNS mitigates cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity by enhancing mitophagy via a HIF-1α/BNIP3/Beclin-1 signaling pathway.

MiR-23a targets RUNX2 and suppresses ginsenoside Rg1-induced angiogenesis in endothelial cells

Rg1 is a predominant protopanaxatriol-type of ginsenoside found in Panax ginseng, and it has been shown to have anti-cancer effects in multiple types of cancer cells. However, Rg1 also induces the expression of proangiogenic factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A), in endothelial cells. Unfortunately, angiogenesis positively correlates with cancer development. In this study, we identified RUNX2 as a regulator of ginsenoside Rg1-induced angiogenesis for the first time. We found that RUNX2 was directly targeted and regulated by miR-23a. Additionally, miR-23a was shown to inhibit angiogenesis in both human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and in zebrafish. Furthermore, a decrease in RUNX2 expression resulted in translational repression of VEGF-A in HUVECs. Taken together, this study identified a MiR-23a/RUNX2/VEGF-A pathway in angiogenesis and shed light on the molecular mechanism of Rg1-induced angiogenesis. Thus, RUNX2 might be a potential therapeutic target in Rg1-mediated angiogenesis in cancer.

Combination of ginsenoside Rb1 and Rd protects the retina against bright light-induced degeneration

Photoreceptor degeneration is a central pathology of various retinal degenerative diseases which currently lack effective therapies. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities are noted for Panax notoginsenoside saponins (PNS) and related saponin compound(s). However, the photoreceptor protective potentials of PNS or related saponin compound(s) remain unknown. The current study revealed that PNS protected against photoreceptor loss in bright light-exposed BALB/c mice. Combination of ginsenoside Rb1 and Rd, two major saponin compounds of PNS, recapitulated the retinal protection of PNS and attenuated retinal oxidative stress and inflammatory changes. Rb1 or Rd partially alleviated all-trans-Retinal-induced oxidative stress in ARPE19 cells. Rb1 or Rd suppressed lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced proinflammatory gene expression in ARPE19 and RAW264.7 cells. Rb1 or Rd also modulated the expression of proinflammatory microRNA, miR-155 and its direct target, anti-inflammatory SHIP1, in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. The retinal expression of miR-155 and SHIP1 was altered preceding extensive retinal damage, which was maintained at normal level by Rb1 and Rd combination. This work shows for the first time that altered expression of miR-155 and SHIP1 are involved in photoreceptor degeneration. Most importantly, novel retinal protective activities of combination of Rb1 and Rd justify further evaluation for the treatment of related retinal degenerative disorders.

RNAi targeting Nogo Receptor enhanced survival and proliferation of murine retinal ganglion cells during N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced optic nerve crush

We investigated the effects of lentivirus-mediated RNAi targeting of Nogo Receptor (NgR) on the proliferation and survival of murine retinal ganglion cells (mRGCs) in vitro and in vivo. Cultured mRGCs and C57BL/6 male mice were divided into 4 experimental groups: blank, model [100 μM N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)], nscRNA (100 μM NMDA+ nscRNA vectors) and siNgR (100 μM NMDA+ siNgR vectors). CCK-8 and flow cytometry analyses revealed that silencing NgR enhanced proliferation, cell cycling and survival of NMDA-treated mRGCs. H&E staining showed that NgR silencing enhanced mRGC cell density and reduced angiogenesis in NMDA-treated retinal tissues. TUNEL assays showed that mRGC apoptosis was significantly diminished by NgR silencing in NMDA-treated retinal tissues. Western blotting and qRT-PCR analysis in NMDA-treated mRGCs and murine retinal tissues revealed that NgR silencing resulted in downregulation of RhoA signaling (RhoA and ROCK2). Western blotting showed that levels of activated Bax and cleaved caspase 3 were decreased, while Bcl-2 and pro-caspase 3 were increased in NMDA-treated mRGCs and murine retinal tissues, which corroborated the decreased apoptosis. These findings indicate that NgR gene silencing increases proliferation and survival of mRGCs in NMDA-treated murine retinas, which suggests a potential for therapeutic application to preventing optic nerve damage.