Medicinal plants used by the people of Nsukka Local Government Area, south-eastern Nigeria for the treatment of malaria: An ethnobotanical survey

Metabolic and elemental profiling as potential discriminating features among the black mahlab seeds (Monechma ciliatum) grown in three different regions

INTRODUCTION

Black mahlab (Monechma ciliatum) seed is a rich source of metabolites and minerals and is usually believed to have a similar composition between different areas of cultivation. Until now, no studies have assessed changes in black mahlab seeds (BMSs) to determine those constituents that help to discriminate them according to geographical origin.

OBJECTIVES

The present study attempted to compare the metabolomics and elemental profiles of BMSs of different geographical origins and identified the potential markers using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole Orbitrap tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS2), and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) techniques and established the chemometric model to identify the potential markers and discriminate them according to cultivation sites.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In this work, data from metabolites analysis by UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS2 and multi-elemental data obtained from ICP-MS were combined with chemometrics for tracing the geographical origin of BMSs. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to evaluate the overall grouping of samples. In contrast, partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were employed for authentication.

RESULTS

PLS-DA and OPLS-DA models were fully validated (R2Y and Q2 values > 0.5). Variable importance of various projections was applied to obtain valuable data about differential elements (seven markers were identified) and metabolites (23 markers were identified) with high discrimination potential. The outcomes presented in this study serve as an appropriate framework for developing novel discrimination approaches in food origin screening.

Plants from Arid and Semi-Arid Zones of Mexico Used to Treat Respiratory Diseases: A Review

Medicinal plants have been a traditional remedy for numerous ailments for centuries. However, their usage is limited due to a lack of evidence-based studies elucidating their mechanisms of action. In some countries, they are still considered the first treatment due to their low cost, accessibility, and minor adverse effects. Mexico is in second place, after China, in inventoried plants for medicinal use. It has around 4000 species of medicinal plants; however, pharmacological studies have only been carried out in 5% of its entirety. The species of the Mexican arid zones, particularly in semi-desert areas, exhibit outstanding characteristics, as their adverse growing conditions (e.g., low rainfall and high temperatures) prompt these plants to produce interesting metabolites with diverse biological activities. This review explores medicinal plants belonging to the arid and semi-arid zones of Mexico, focusing on those that have stood out for their bioactive potential, such as Jatropha dioica, Turnera diffusa, Larrea tridentata, Opuntia ficus-indica, Flourensia cernua, Fouquieria splendes, and Prosopis glandulosa. Their extraction conditions, bioactive compounds, mechanisms of action, and biological efficacy are presented, with emphasis on their role in the treatment of respiratory diseases. Additionally, current research, novel applications, and perspectives concerning medicinal plants from these zones are also discussed.

In-vitro antimalarial activity of methanolic leaf- and stem-derived extracts from four Annonaceae plants

OBJECTIVE

Plants in the Annonaceae family are known for having abundant biologically active secondary metabolites. They have been used in alternative drugs for various diseases in several countries, for instance, the bark of Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook and Thomson is used for Ophthalmic inflammation and wound healing in Malaysia. Extracts from the leaves and stems of four Annonaceae plants, namely Uvaria longipes (Craib) L.L.Zhou, Y.C.F.Su & R.M.K.Saunders, Dasymaschalon sp., Artabotrys burmanicus A.DC, and Marsypopetalum modestum (Pierre) B.Xue & R.M.K.Saunders were investigated for growth inhibitory activity against blood-stage Plasmodium falciparum growth in vitro and for non-specific cytotoxicity against normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Antimalarial activity was assessed by invasion inhibition assay and the percentage of infected red blood cells on blood smears were determined. Cytotoxicity was tested by culturing PBMCs with the extracts, and viabilities were determined by Annexin V/propidium iodide staining.

RESULTS

A. burmanicus stem extract and M. modestum leaf extract were capable of inhibiting growth of P. falciparum when used at 200 µg/mL compared to chloroquine. The extracts at effective concentrations, did not affect the viability of PBMCs. These results support further need for characterization of active compounds from specific Annonaceae plants in order to exploit their components for potential malaria treatment.

Predicting Plasmodium falciparum kinase inhibitors from antimalarial medicinal herbs using computational modeling approach

Malaria remains a significant public health challenge, with resistance to available drugs necessitating the development of novel therapies targeting invasion-dependent proteins. Plasmodium falciparum calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 (PfCDPK-1) is essential for host erythrocyte invasion and parasite asexual development. This study screened a library of 490 compounds using computational methods to identify potential PfCDPK-1 inhibitors. Three compounds; 17-hydroxyazadiradione, Picracin, and Epicatechin-gallate derived from known antimalarial botanicals, showed potent inhibitory effects on PfCDPK-1. These compounds exhibited better binding affinities (-8.8, -9.1, -9.3 kCal/mol respectively), pharmacokinetics, and physicochemical properties than the purported inhibitory standard of PfCDPK-1, Purfalcamine. Molecular dynamics simulations (50 ns) and molecular mechanics analyses confirmed the stability and binding rigidity of these compounds at the active pocket of PfCDPK-1. The results suggest that these compounds are promising pharmacological targets with potential therapeutic effects for malaria treatment/management without undesirable side effects. Therefore, this study provides new insights into the development of effective antimalarial agents targeting invasion-dependent proteins, which could help combat the global malaria burden.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40203-023-00175-z.

Indigenous medicinal plants used in folk medicine for malaria treatment in Kwara State, Nigeria: an ethnobotanical study

BACKGROUND

Folk medicine is crucial to healthcare delivery in the underdeveloped countries. It is frequently used as a primary treatment option or as a complementary therapy for malaria. Malaria is a deadly disease which greatly threatens global public health, claiming incredible number of lives yearly. The study was aimed at documenting the medicinal plants used for malaria treatment in folk medicine in Kwara State, Nigeria.

METHODS

Ethnobotanical information was collected from selected consenting registered traditional medicine practitioners (TMPs) through oral face-to-face interviews using in-depth, semi-structured interview guide. The ethnobotanical data were analysed, and descriptive statistical methods were used to compile them.

RESULTS

Sixty-two indigenous medicinal plants, including 13 new plants, used for malaria treatment were identified in this study. The TMPs preferred decoction in aqueous solvent (34%) and steeping in decaffeinated soft drink (19%) for herbal preparations. Oral administration (74%) was the main route of administration, while leaves (40%) and stem barks (32%) were the most dominant plant parts used in herbal preparations. The most cited families were Fabaceae (15%) and Rutaceae (6%), while Mangifera indica (77.14%), Enantia chlorantha (65.71%), Alstonia boonei (57.14%) followed by Cymbopogon citratus (54.29%) were the most used plants. Besides, the antimalarial activities of many of the plants recorded and their isolated phytocompounds have been demonstrated. Furthermore, the conservation status of 4 identified plants were Vulnerable.

CONCLUSION

The study showed strong ethnobotanical knowledge shared by the TMPs in the State and provides preliminary information that could be explored for the discovery of more potent antimalarial compounds.

Neuroprotection by Alstonia boonei De Wild., Anacardium occidentale L., Azadirachta indica A.Juss. and Mangifera indica L

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Alstonia boonei De Wild. (stem bark), Anacardium occidentale L. (stem bark), Azadirachta indica A.Juss (leaves), Enantia chlorantha Oliv. (stem bark), Khaya senegalensis A.Juss (stem bark) Mangifera indica L. (stem bark), and Nauclea latifolia Sm. (stem bark) are used for treating malaria in southwest Nigeria. Surveys revealed that these plants are also employed for treating symptoms of malaria and cerebral malaria in the region.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, the effects of freeze-dried extracts of these plants were investigated on synthetic hemozoin (HZ)-induced neuroinflammation, neuronal damage, and increased permeability of brain microvascular endothelial cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Effects of freeze-dried plant extracts were investigated on neuroinflammation by measuring levels of pro-inflammatory mediators in culture supernatants, while in-cell western assays were used to measure protein levels of iNOS and NLRP3. Effects on HZ-induced neurotoxicity and ROS generation was measured using MTT and DCFDA assays, respectively. HZ-induced permeability of hCMEC/D3 endothelial cells was determined using the in vitro vascular permeability assay kit.

RESULTS

The extracts produced significant (p < 0.05) reduction in TNFα, IL-6, IL-1β, MCP-1, RANTES and iNOS/NO production in HZ-stimulated BV-2 microglia. Pre-treatment with 50 μg/mL of A. boonei, A. indica, A. occidentale, E. chlorantha and M. indica also resulted in the inhibition of NF-κB activation. Pre-treatment with A. indica produced, A. occidentale, M. indica and A. boonei reduced HZ-induced increased NLRP3 protein expression. HZ-induced increased caspase-1 activity was also reduced by A. boonei, A. occidentale, A. indica, E. chlorantha, and M. indica. Freeze-dried extracts of A. boonei, A. occidentale, A. indica and M. indica produced neuroprotective effect in HT-22 neuronal cells incubated with HZ by preventing HZ-induced neurotoxicity, ROS generation, DNA fragmentation and caspase 3/7 activity. Inhibition of HZ-induced increase in permeability of human hCMEC/D3 brain endothelial cells was also observed with A. boonei, A. occidentale, A. indica and M. indica, while reducing the release of TNFα and MMP-9.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that A. boonei, A. occidentale, A. indica and M. indica are neuroprotective through inhibition of neuroinflammation, neuronal damage and increased permeability of blood brain barrier. The outcome of the study provides pharmacological evidence for the potential benefits of plants as herbal treatments for cerebral malaria symptoms.

Antimalarial potential of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae): A review of the ethnomedicinal, pharmacological, toxicological, and phytochemical evidence

Several regions of the world frequently use the species Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae) in traditional medicine. This situation is even more common in African countries. Many literature reports point to the antimalarial potential of this species, indicating the efficacy of its chemical compounds against malaria-causing parasites of the genus Plasmodium. From this perspective, the present study reviews the ethnobotanical, pharmacological, toxicological, and phytochemical (flavonoids) evidence of M. oleifera, focusing on the treatment of malaria. Scientific articles were retrieved from Google Scholar, PubMed^®, ScienceDirect^®, and SciELO databases. Only articles published between 2002 and 2022 were selected. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, this review used a total of 72 articles. These documents mention a large use of M. oleifera for the treatment of malaria in African and Asian countries. The leaves (63%) of this plant are the main parts used in the preparation of herbal medicines. The in vivo antimalarial activity of M. oleifera was confirmed through several studies using polar and nonpolar extracts, fractions obtained from the extracts, infusion, pellets, and oils obtained from this plant and tested in rodents infected by the following parasites of the genus Plasmodium: P. berghei, P. falciparum, P. yoelii, and P. chabaudi. Extracts obtained from M. oleifera showed no toxicity in preclinical tests. A total of 46 flavonoids were identified in the leaves and seeds of M. oleifera by different chromatography and mass spectrometry methods. Despite the scarcity of research on the antimalarial potential of compounds isolated from M. oleifera, the positive effects against malaria-causing parasites in previous studies are likely to correlate with the flavonoids that occur in this species.

Classification of Black Mahlab seeds (Monechma ciliatum) using GC-MS and FT-NIR and simultaneous prediction of their major volatile compounds using chemometrics

The identification of geographical origin is an important factor in assessing the quality of aromatic and medicinal seeds such as Black Mahlab (Monechma ciliatum). However, at present, there are no studies concerning Black Mahlab Seeds (BMSs). To identify the geographical origin of BMSs, we have used gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-NIR) combined with chemometrics. Chemometrics analysis showed that FT-NIR and GC-MS can be used to discriminate the geographical origin of BMSs. FT-NIR coupled with the partial least squares regression (PLSR) was applied to develop the calibration models. The calibration models had a coefficient of determination (R_c²) of 0.82 for coumarin and 0.81 for methyl salicylate. The prediction model (R_p²) values ranged from 0.83 for coumarin to 0.77 for methyl salicylate. Overall, the chemometrics presented correct classification, and PLSR accurately predicted the volatiles, with an RMSEP range of 0.9 to 0.16 for the two volatiles targeted.

Strategy for the quality control of herbal preparations made of Sarcocephalus latifolius: Development and validation of a UHPLC-PDA method for quantification of angustoline and strictosamide and chemical profiling using LC-QToF

INTRODUCTION

Sarcocephalus latifolius is one of the most used plants in West African traditional medicine to treat malaria.

OBJECTIVE

The aim is to establish a strategy to control the quality of herbal preparations made from S. latifolius.

METHOD

A UHPLC-PDA method was developed for the determination and quantification of the two main bioactive compounds (angustoline and strictosamide) in various parts of the plant. Additionally, an LC-QToF with electrospray ionization method is described for the identification and confirmation of compounds in samples of different parts of the plant.

RESULTS

With the UHPLC-PDA method, separation was achieved within 5 min using a C18 column stationary phase at a temperature of 45°C and a gradient system with a mobile phase of water and acetonitrile, both containing 0.1% formic acid. The method was validated for linearity, accuracy, precision (repeatability and intermediate precision), limit of detection (LOD), and limit of quantification (LOQ). The LOD and LOQ of angustoline were found to be 0.3 and 0.8 μg/ml, respectively, and those of strictosamide were found to be 0.1 and 0.3 μg/ml, respectively. Using the LC-QToF method, 90 secondary metabolites, including four isolated compounds from the plant's roots, were identified from leaf, bark, and root samples of S. latifolius.

CONCLUSION

This work is the first to propose a strategy to control the quality of herbal preparations made from S. latifolius. The developed method allows the quantification of the main bioactive compounds and the established chemical profile allows to distinguish the plant from any other species.

Genus Rauvolfia: A review of its ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, quality control/quality assurance, pharmacological activities and clinical evidence

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The plants are from the genus Rauvolfia Plum. ex L. (Apocynaceae), which is represented by 74 species with many synonyms, and distributed worldwide, especially in the Asian, and African continents. Traditionally, some of them are used for the treatment of various disorders related to the central nervous system (CNS), cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and as an antidote due to the presence of monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs) such as ajmaline (144), ajmalicine (164) serpentine (182), yohimbine (190) and reserpine (214).

AIM

The present review provides comprehensive summarization and critical analysis of the traditional to modern applications of Rauvolfia species, and the major focus was to include traditional uses, phytochemistry, quality control, pharmacological properties, as well as clinical evidence that may be useful in the drug discovery process.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information related to traditional uses, chemical constituents, separation techniques/analytical methods, and pharmacological properties of the genus Rauvolfia were obtained using electronic databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, SciFinder, PubMed, PubChem, ChemSpider, and Google Scholar between the years 1949-2021. The scientific name of the species and its synonyms were checked with the information of The Plant List.

RESULTS

A total of seventeen Rauvolfia species have been traditionally explored for various therapeutic applications, out of which the roots of R. serpentina and R. vomitoria are used most commonly for the treatment of many diseases. About 287 alkaloids, seven terpenoids, nine flavonoids, and four phenolic acids have been reported in different parts of the forty-three species. Quality control (QC)/quality assurance (QA) of extracts/herbal formulations of Rauvolfia species was analyzed by qualitative and quantitative methods based on the major MIAs such as compounds 144, 164, 182, 190, and 214 using HPTLC, HPLC, and HPLC-MS. The various extracts of different plant parts of thirteen Rauvolfia species are explored for their pharmacological properties such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiprotozoal, antitrypanosomal, antipsychotic, cardioprotective, cholinesterase inhibitory, and hepatoprotective. Of which, clinical trials of herbal formulations/extracts of R. serpentina and MIAs have been reported for CVD, CNS, antihypertensive therapy, antidiabetic effects, and psoriasis therapy, while the extracts and phytoconstituents of remaining Rauvolfia species are predominantly significant, owning them to be additional attention for further investigation under clinical trials and QC/QA.

CONCLUSION

The present communication has provided a comprehensive, systematic, and critically analyzed vision into the traditional uses, phytochemistry, and modern therapeutic applications of the genus Rauvolfia are validated by scientific evidence. In addition, different plant parts from this genus, especially raw and finished herbal products of the roots of R. serpentina have been demonstrated for the QC/QA.

Assessment of antimalarial medicinal plants used in Nigerian ethnomedicine reveals antimalarial potential of Cucurbita pepo leaf extract

Medicinal plants are often used to treat malaria in different parts of Nigeria and exploiting these can unravel new therapeutic leads. This study evaluated the antiplasmodial potential of selected plants used to treat malaria in Nsukka, Enugu state, Nigeria. Leaves of three different plants (Cucurbita pepo, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and Pennisetum purpureum) were collected for screening and two extracts viz., 70%v/v ethanol and dichloromethane/methanol (1:1 v/v), were prepared for each. An acute toxicity test was done in mice and cytotoxicity was assessed using human hepatoma cell line (HUH). The extracts were screened against chloroquine-sensitive P. falciparum (Pf3D7) in vitro, and chloroquine-resistant P. berghei ANKA in vivo using a 4 day-suppressive test in mice. Cucurbita pepo ethanol extract was further tested for hemolytic effect on human erythrocytes and in established infection in mice. Parameters assessed were post-treatment parasitemia, hematological indices, organ (brain, kidney, liver, and spleen) weights, and survival. The extracts were non-cytotoxic up to a test dose of 100 μg/ml and 2000 mg/kg fed - mice did not show acute or delayed toxicity. Cucurbita pepo ethanol extract (CpE) displayed excellent in vitro antiplasmodial activity with IC₅₀ of 3.05 μg/ml. At an oral dose of 500 mg/kg, mice were observed to display significant (p < 0.01) ∼51% suppression of parasitemia. The extract did not produce any significant hemolytic effect up to a test concentration of 1 mg/ml. In established infection, a dose of 300 mg/kg significantly (p < 0.01) protected mice from anemia caused by low hematocrit. The extract produced significant (p < 0.05) elevation in red blood cells and platelet counts, and an increase in hemoglobin was evident at 100 and 300 mg/kg. Further, CpE in a dose-dependent manner, reversed liver and spleen weight increase seen in untreated, infected mice. These findings show C. pepo as a potential candidate for further studies to identify its bioactive principle(s) and possible mechanism(s) of antimalarial action.

Evaluation of Allicin Against Alveolar Echinococcosis In Vitro and in a Mouse Model

Purpose

At present, the chemotherapy for alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is mainly based on albendazole (ABZ). However, more than 20% of patients fail chemotherapy. Therefore, new and more effective treatments are urgently needed. Allicin has been reported to have antibacterial and antiparasitic effects. The objectives of the present study were to investigate the in vivo and in vitro efficacy of allicin against Echinococcus multilocularis (E. multilocularis).

Methods

The effects of allicin on protoscolex survival and structural changes were evaluated in vitro. The 4-week-old BALB/c male mice used for in vivo modelling underwent inoculation of E. multilocularis protoscoleces by intraperitoneal injection, followed by intragastric administration of allicin for 6 weeks. Then, the effects of allicin on lymphocyte subsets, metacestode growth and host tissue matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2)/MMP9 expression around metacestodes in mice were evaluated. The toxicity of allicin was further evaluated in vivo and in vitro.

Results

Att 40 μg/mL, allicin showed a killing effect on protoscoleces in vitro and treatment resulted in the destruction of protoscolex structure. Molecular docking showed that allicin could form hydrogen bonds with E. multilocularis cysteine enzymes. After 6 weeks of in vivo allicin treatment, the spleen index of mice was increased and the weight of metacestodes was reduced. Allicin increased the proportion of CD4⁺ T cells and decreased the proportion of CD8⁺ T cells in the peripheral blood and spleen. Pathological analysis of the metacestodes showed structural disruption of the germinal and laminated layers after allicin treatment. In addition, allicin inhibited the expression of MMP2 and MMP9 in metacestode-surrounding host tissues. At 160 μg/mL, allicin had no significant toxicity to normal hepatocytes but could inhibit hepatoma cell proliferation. At 30 mg/kg, allicin had no significant hepatorenal toxicity in vivo.

Conclusion

These results suggest that allicin exerts anti-E. multilocularis effects in vitro and in vivo and can enhance immune function in mice, with the potential to be developed as a lead compound against echinococcosis.

Jatrorrhizine: A Review of Sources, Pharmacology, Pharmacokinetics and Toxicity

Jatrorrhizine, an isoquinoline alkaloid, is a bioactive metabolite in common medicinal plants, such as Berberis vernae Schneid., Tinospora sagittata (Oliv.) Gagnep. and Coptis chinensis Franch. These plants have been used for centuries in traditional medicine for their wide-ranging pharmacological properties. This review emphasizes the latest and comprehensive information on the sources, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicity of jatrorrhizine. Studies on this alkaloid were collected from scientific internet databases, including the Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, Elsevier, Springer, Wiley Online Library and Europe PMC and CNKI, using a combination of keywords involving “jatrorrhizine”, “sources”, “pharmacology,” “pharmacokinetics,” and “toxicology”. Jatrorrhizine exhibits anti-diabetic, antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, anticancer, anti-obesity and hypolipidemic properties, along with central nervous system activities and other beneficial activity. Studies of jatrorrhizine have laid the foundation for its application to the treatment of various diseases, but some issues still exist. Further investigations might emphasize 1) specific curative mechanisms of jatrorrhizine and clinical utility, 2) application prospect in the treatment of metabolic disorders, 3) comprehensive investigations of the toxicity mechanisms and 4) interactions of jatrorrhizine with other pharmaceuticals and development of derivatives.

Traditional medicinal plants used for treating emerging and re-emerging viral diseases in northern Nigeria

Introduction

For decades, viral diseases have been treated using medicinal plants and herbal practices in the northern part of Nigeria. Though scarcely investigated, these medicinal plants could serve as potential sources for novel antiviral drugs against emerging and remerging viral diseases. Therefore, this study is aimed at investigating the medicinal practices and plants used to treat emerging and re-emerging viral diseases including hepatitis, poliomyelitis, monkeypox, smallpox, yellow fever, Lassa fever, meningitis, and COVID-19 in some northern states; Katsina, Kebbi, Kwara and Sokoto states.

Method

Administered questionnaires and oral interviews were used to collect information on medicinal plants, method of preparation of herbal formulations, diagnosis, and treatment of viral diseases. Medicinal plants were collected, botanically identified, and assigned voucher numbers. The plant names were verified using www.theplantlist.org, www.worldfloraonline.org and the international plant names index.

Result

A total of 280 participating herbal medicine practitioners (HMPs) mentioned 131 plants belonging to 65 families. Plant parts such as roots, bark, leaf, seed, and fruit were prepared as a decoction, concoction, infusion, or ointment for oral and topical treatment of viral diseases. Moringa oleifera (75.3%), Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (80%), and Acacia nilotica (70%) were the most frequently mentioned plants in Kebbi, Kwara and Sokoto states, respectively.

Conclusion

The study revealed scarcely investigated and uninvestigated medicinal plants used to treat hepatitis, poliomyelitis, monkeypox, smallpox, yellow fever, Lassa fever, meningitis, and COVID-19. Future studies should be conducted to determine the antiviral potency and isolate novel bioactive agents from these plants against viral diseases.

Genus Pterocarpus: A review of ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activities, and clinical evidence

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Pterocarpus (Fabaceae) has about 46 species that are distributed over Asia, especially Indonesia, Africa, and several countries in America. Particularly, P. indicus and P. santalinus have been recorded as ancestor recipe in the old Indonesian book (Cabe puyang warisan nenek moyang). These plants have found application in traditional medicine, such as in the treatment of inflammatory diseases, gonorrhoea, infection, coughs, mouth ulcers, boils, diarrhoea, as well as in the management of pain (as an analgesic).

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present review aimed to comprehensively summarise the current researches on the traditional and scientific applications of the genus Pterocarpus with regard to the phytochemical content, in vivo and in vitro bioactivities, as well as clinical evidence that may be useful for future drug development.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information about the Pterocarpus genus were obtained from local classic herbal literature and electronic databases, such as PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The scientific name of the species and its synonyms were checked with the information of The Plant List. Additionally, clinical trial results were obtained from the Cochrane library.

RESULTS

Several phytochemical constituents of the plants, e.g., flavonoids, isoflavonoids, terpenoids, phenolic acids, and fatty acids have been reported. There are about 11 species of Pterocarpus that have been scientifically studied for their biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, analgesic, and anti-hyperglycemic. Of which, the anti-hyperglycemic activity of the extracts and phytochemicals of P. indicus and P. marsupium is particularly remarkable, allowing them to be further studied under clinical trial.

CONCLUSION

The present review has provided an insight into the traditional applications of the plants and some of them have been validated by scientific evidence, particularly their applications as anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial agents. In addition, the genus has demonstrated notable anti-diabetic activity in various clinical trials.

Study of the Antimalarial Activity of the Leaf Extracts and Fractions of Persea americana and Dacryodes edulis and Their HPLC Analysis

In the present study, the antimalarial activity of the extracts and fractions of the leaves of Persea americana and Dacryodes edulis as well as their phytochemical compositions were examined. Each of the extracts of the plants was successively fractionated to obtain hexane, ethyl acetate, methanol, and water fractions. The extracts and fractions were tested against Plasmodium berghei in both curative and suppressive antimalarial mouse models. Their major phytochemical composition was studied by the standard chemical tests and HPLC analysis. The extracts and fractions of P. americana and D. edulis demonstrated significant (p < 0.05) maximal plasmodial inhibition as 52.16 ± 2.77% and 57.10 ± 1.98%, respectively, and chemosuppression of parasitemia as 64.01 ± 0.08% and 71.99 ± 0.06%, respectively. The major secondary metabolites identified in the plants include alkaloids, flavonoids, and saponins. It was concluded that P. americana and D. edulis possess promising antimalarial activity and they are potential sources of new lead compounds against malaria.

Ethnobotanical Survey of Natural Galactagogues Prescribed in Traditional Chinese Medicine Pharmacies in Taiwan

Natural medicinal materials have been used to promote breast milk secretion. Here, we investigated the natural medicinal materials prescribed in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) pharmacies across Taiwan to induce lactation. We collected medicinal materials from 87 TCM pharmacies, identified them in the prescriptions, and analyzed their drug contents. We examined their botanical origins, biological classifications, traditional usage, and modern pharmacological properties. We used the TCM Inheritance Support System to identify core medicinal materials in galactogenous prescriptions. We collected 81 medicinal materials from 90 galactogenous prescriptions. Leguminosae accounted for 12%, whereas Apiaceae accounted for 7% of all materials examined. The primary medicinal plant parts used were roots and seeds. Nineteen frequently used medicinal materials had a relative frequency of citation of greater than or equal to 0.2. According to their efficacy, 58% were warm, 54% were sweet, and 63% were tonifying; 74% of the frequently used medicinal materials have been showed efficacy against breast cancer. The primary core medicinal material was Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels, whereas the secondary core medicinal materials were Tetrapanax papyrifer (Hook.) K. Koch and Hedysarum polybotrys Hand.-Mazz. Most galactogenous prescriptions consisted of multiple materials from Leguminosae and Apiaceae. The mechanisms underlying galactogenous efficacy warrant further investigations.

Ethnobotanical survey on plants used in the treatment of candidiasis in traditional markets of southern Benin

BACKGROUND

Candidiasis, an opportunistic cosmopolitan disease is nowadays like bacterial infections which is a real public health problem. In view of the emergence of Candida strains resistant to existing antifungal agents, alternative solutions should be considered. This is the purpose of this ethnobotanical survey, which aims to identify the medicinal plant species traditionally used to treat candidiasis in traditional markets of southern Benin.

METHODS

The study was performed from October 2015 to January 2018 in the traditional markets of Southern-Benin. Data were collected by two complementary methods: triplet purchase of medicinal recipes (ATRM) from herbalists markets and semi-structured interview (ISS) from traditional healers.

RESULTS

A total of 109 species of medicinal plants belonging to 44 families have been listed and identified. The most frequently cited species were Pteleopsis suberosa Engl. & Diels, Lantana camara L., Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H. Rob, Ocimum gratissimum L. and Lippia multiflora Moldenke with respectively 43.84, 39.73 and 34.25% citation frequencies for the last three species respectively. Leguminosae (20.18%), Euphorbiaceae (5.50%) and Apocynaceae (5.50%) were the most represented botanical families. Leafy stems were more used than other plant organs. The decoction and the oral route were the most appropriate methods of preparation and administration reported by traditional healers.

CONCLUSION

Benin's plant cover is made up of a wide variety of medicinal plant species used in the traditionnal treatment of candidiasis and which may constitute new sources of medicines to be developed.

Ethnopharmacology-aided antiplasmodial evaluation of six selected plants used for malaria treatment in Nigeria

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sub - Saharan Africa has a high malaria burden and Nigeria accounts for majority of malaria cases worldwide. The aim of this study was to evaluate selected plants extracts used against malaria in Nigeria for antiplasmodial activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An ethnomedicinal based - approach by literature survey was used to identify plants used in the study. The parts of the plant used were collected and extracted with 70% v/v ethanol; a portion of each extract was used to prepare successive solvent and residual fractions. Chloroquine-sensitive (3D7) P. falciparum strain and human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293) were used for antiplasmodial and cytotoxicity screening respectively. Hemolysis assay was also carried out on red blood cells (RBCs). Test for in vivo efficacy of an active extract was conducted in a mouse model of established P. berghei ANKA-infection.

RESULTS

A total of six plants; Andropogon schirensis, Celtis durandii, Chasmanthera dependens, Daniellia ogea, Icacina trichantha and Triumfetta cordifolia were selected and screened. Triumfetta cordifolia leaf extract was observed to display moderate in vitro antiplasmodial activity (IC₅₀ = 48.09 μg/ml) and was non-toxic to HEK293 cells and erythrocytes. At a dose of 400 mg/kg, T. cordifolia significantly (p<0.001) suppressed parasitemia, significantly (p<0.001) inhibited RBC depletion and prolonged survival in infected mice.

CONCLUSIONS

T. cordifolia ethanol extract possesses antiplasmodial efficacy and this is the first report of its kind on the plant. It is a potential candidate for further studies to identify its mechanism of action.

Antimalarial herbal remedies of Bukavu and Uvira areas in DR Congo: An ethnobotanical survey

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The main objective of the present study was to collect and gather information on herbal remedies traditionally used for the treatment of malaria in Bukavu and Uvira, two towns of the South Kivu province in DRC.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Direct interview with field enquiries allowed collecting ethnobotanical data; for each plant, a specimen was harvested in the presence of the interviewed traditional healers (THs). The recorded information included vernacular names, morphological parts of plants, methods of preparation and administration of remedies, dosage and treatment duration. Plants were identified with the help of botanists in the herbaria of INERA/KIPOPO (DRC) and the Botanic Garden of Meise (Belgium), where voucher specimens have been deposited. The results were analysed and discussed in the context of previous published data.

RESULTS

Interviewees cited 45 plant species belonging to 41 genera and 21 families used for the treatment of malaria. These plants are used in the preparation of 52 recipes, including 25 multi-herbal recipes and 27 mono-herbal recipes. Apart of Artemisia annua L. (Asteraceae; % Citation frequency = 34%) and Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae; % Citation frequency = 34%), the study has highlighted that the most represented families are Asteraceae with 12 species (26%), followed by Fabaceae with 7 species (16%) and Rubiaceae with 4 species (9%). For a majority of plants, herbal medicines are prepared from the leaves in the form of decoction and administered by oral route.

CONCLUSION

Literature data indicate that part of cited species are already known (38%) and/or studied (30%) for antimalarial properties, which gives credit to the experience of Bukavu and Uvira interviewees and some level of confidence on collected information. The highly cited plants should be investigated in details for the isolation and identification of active ingredients, a contribution to the discovery of new possibly effective antimalarials.

A review of the traditional use of southern African medicinal plants for the treatment of malaria

ETHNOPHARMALOGICAL RELEVANCE

Malaria is one of the most prevalent and deadly parasitic diseases globally, with over 200 million new cases and nearly 500,000 deaths reported annually. It is estimated that approximately half of the world's population lives in malaria endemic areas. Malaria is substantially less prevalent in South Africa than in other African regions and the disease is limited to some regions of the Limpopo, Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces. However, it still has a significant impact on the health of the populations living in those regions. Traditional medicines have long been used in South Africa by multiple ethic groups and many people continue to rely on these natural therapies for their healthcare. The usage of South African medicinal plants in several traditional healing systems to treat malaria have been documented (particularly for Zulu and Venda traditional medicine), although ethnobotanical investigations of other ethnic groups living in endemic malaria areas remains relatively neglected.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To document the use of South African medicinal plants known to be used traditionally to treat Plasmodium spp. infections. We also critically reviewed the literature on the therapeutic properties of these and other South African plants screened against Plasmodium spp. parasites with the aim of highlighting neglected studies and fostering future research in this area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Books and ethnobotanical reviews were examined for medicinal plants used specifically for fever. Exclusion criteria were studies not involving southern African medicinal plants. Furthermore, while fever is a common symptom of malaria, if not accompanied by the term "malaria" it was not considered. Databases including PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus and Google Scholar were used to source research relevant to southern African plants and malaria. Exclusion criteria were those publications where full articles could not be accessed.

RESULTS

Eighty South African plant species were identified as traditional therapies for malaria. The majority of these species were documented in Zulu ethnobotanical records, despite malaria occurring in only a relatively small portion of the Zulu's traditional territory. Surprisingly, far fewer species were reported to be used by Venda, Ndebele, northern Sotho, Tsonga, Tswana, and Pedi people, despite them living in endemic malaria areas. Interestingly many of the identified species have not been investigated further. This review summarises the available ethnobotanical and laboratory research in this field, with the aim of promoting and focusing research on priority areas.

CONCLUSION

Although malaria remains a serious disease affecting millions of people, medicinal plants while used extensively, have not been given the attention warranted for further investigation.

Prosopis Plant Chemical Composition and Pharmacological Attributes: Targeting Clinical Studies from Preclinical Evidence

Members of the Prosopis genus are native to America, Africa and Asia, and have long been used in traditional medicine. The Prosopis species most commonly used for medicinal purposes are P. africana, P. alba, P. cineraria, P. farcta, P. glandulosa, P. juliflora, P. nigra, P. ruscifolia and P. spicigera, which are highly effective in asthma, birth/postpartum pains, callouses, conjunctivitis, diabetes, diarrhea, expectorant, fever, flu, lactation, liver infection, malaria, otitis, pains, pediculosis, rheumatism, scabies, skin inflammations, spasm, stomach ache, bladder and pancreas stone removal. Flour, syrup, and beverages from Prosopis pods have also been potentially used for foods and food supplement formulation in many regions of the world. In addition, various in vitro and in vivo studies have revealed interesting antiplasmodial, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic and wound healing effects. The phytochemical composition of Prosopis plants, namely their content of C-glycosyl flavones (such as schaftoside, isoschaftoside, vicenin II, vitexin and isovitexin) has been increasingly correlated with the observed biological effects. Thus, given the literature reports, Prosopis plants have positive impact on the human diet and general health. In this sense, the present review provides an in-depth overview of the literature data regarding Prosopis plants' chemical composition, pharmacological and food applications, covering from pre-clinical data to upcoming clinical studies.

Cucurbits Plants: A Key Emphasis to Its Pharmacological Potential

Cucurbita genus has received a renowned interest in the last years. This plant species, native to the Americas, has served worldwide folk medicine for treating gastrointestinal diseases and intestinal parasites, among other clinical conditions. These pharmacological effects have been increasingly correlated with their nutritional and phytochemical composition. Among those chemical constituents, carotenoids, tocopherols, phenols, terpenoids, saponins, sterols, fatty acids, and functional carbohydrates and polysaccharides are those occurring in higher abundance. However, more recently, a huge interest in a class of triterpenoids, cucurbitacins, has been stated, given its renowned biological attributes. In this sense, the present review aims to provide a detailed overview to the folk medicinal uses of Cucurbita plants, and even an in-depth insight on the latest advances with regards to its antimicrobial, antioxidant and anticancer effects. A special emphasis was also given to its clinical effectiveness in humans, specifically in blood glucose levels control in diabetic patients and pharmacotherapeutic effects in low urinary tract diseases.