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Simões R, Miranda I, Pereira H. Chemical composition of leaf cutin in six Quercus suber provenances. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2021; 181:112570. [PMID: 33166753 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2020.112570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The cutin content and composition of cork oak (Quercus suber) leaves was determined in six provenances with different seed geographical origin spreading across the species natural distribution. The cutin layer on the leaf surface was on average 518 μg/cm2 of leaf area and represented 6.7% of the leaf dry weight, with no significant differences among provenances. Cutin depolymerisation was carried out by transesterification on whole leaves. The cutin composition of cork oak leaves is presented here for the first time. It is essentially composed of long-chain aliphatic ω-hydroxy fatty acids (44.4% of the total monomers), mostly with mid-chain hydroxyl and epoxy groups, fatty acids (20.7%), and a smaller proportion of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids (6.5%). The predominant compounds are 10,16-dihydroxy hexadecanoic acid (17.7-25.2%) and 9,10,18-trihydroxyoctadecanoic acid (15.6-18.0%). Alkanols represent 2.8% and aromatic compounds 12.8%, mainly coumarates. Isolation of cuticles from Q. suber leaves was performed using an enzymatic separation procedure and the fragments were analysed. Cuticle isolation is difficult and direct depolymerisation applied to whole leaves proved a suitable method to study cutin monomeric composition, which did not differ substantially to that of the isolated cuticles. No differences between provenances were found regarding cutin content and composition, thereby ruling out a significant genetic determination of these traits, but rather a highly adaptive phenotypic plasticity of cork oak. Although overall similar in their chemical nature, cutin and suberin in cork oak differ in the proportion of the major chemical families, i.e. ω-hydroxy acids, α,ω-diacids, and fatty acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Simões
- Centro de Estudos Florestais, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Isabel Miranda
- Centro de Estudos Florestais, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017, Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Helena Pereira
- Centro de Estudos Florestais, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017, Lisboa, Portugal
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Tsubaki S, Oono K, Onda A. Fractionation of plant-cuticle-based bio-oils by microwave-assisted methanolysis combined with hydrothermal pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis. Heliyon 2019; 5:e01887. [PMID: 31211264 PMCID: PMC6562327 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Microwave-assisted methanolysis was performed to fractionate a mixture of fatty acid methyl-esters from the cuticles of various wild plants and agricultural wastes. A combination of hydrothermal pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis effectively removed hemicellulose and cellulose to afford plant cuticles concentrated in residual materials. The subsequent methanolysis treatment afforded bio-oil from plant cuticles in ∼10% yield with a maximum higher heating value (HHV) of 32 MJ kg-1 from bagasse. The proposed cascading treatments allow the total use of herbaceous soft biomass by utilizing hemicellulose and cellulose fractions as well as plant cuticles to produce bio-oils with high HHVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuntaro Tsubaki
- School of Materials and Chemical Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Ookayama 2-12-1 E4-3, Meguro, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
| | - Kiriyo Oono
- Research Laboratory of Hydrothermal Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Kochi University, Akebono-cho 2-5-1, Kochi, 780-8520, Japan
| | - Ayumu Onda
- Research Laboratory of Hydrothermal Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Kochi University, Akebono-cho 2-5-1, Kochi, 780-8520, Japan
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Jin L, Cai Q, Huang W, Dastmalchi K, Rigau J, Molinas M, Figueras M, Serra O, Stark RE. Potato native and wound periderms are differently affected by down-regulation of FHT, a suberin feruloyl transferase. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2018; 147:30-48. [PMID: 29288888 PMCID: PMC5801124 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2017.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Revised: 12/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Potato native and wound healing periderms contain an external multilayered phellem tissue (potato skin) consisting of dead cells whose cell walls are impregnated with suberin polymers. The phellem provides physical and chemical barriers to tuber dehydration, heat transfer, and pathogenic infection. Previous RNAi-mediated gene silencing studies in native periderm have demonstrated a role for a feruloyl transferase (FHT) in suberin biosynthesis and revealed how its down-regulation affects both chemical composition and physiology. To complement these prior analyses and to investigate the impact of FHT deficiency in wound periderms, a bottom-up methodology has been used to analyze soluble tissue extracts and solid polymers concurrently. Multivariate statistical analysis of LC-MS and GC-MS data, augmented by solid-state NMR and thioacidolysis, yields two types of new insights: the chemical compounds responsible for contrasting metabolic profiles of native and wound periderms, and the impact of FHT deficiency in each of these plant tissues. In the current report, we confirm a role for FHT in developing wound periderm and highlight its distinctive features as compared to the corresponding native potato periderm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liqing Jin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The City College of New York, City University of New York and CUNY Institute for Macromolecular Assemblies, New York, NY 10031, USA; Program in Biochemistry, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Qing Cai
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The City College of New York, City University of New York and CUNY Institute for Macromolecular Assemblies, New York, NY 10031, USA; Program in Chemistry, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Wenlin Huang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The City College of New York, City University of New York and CUNY Institute for Macromolecular Assemblies, New York, NY 10031, USA
| | - Keyvan Dastmalchi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The City College of New York, City University of New York and CUNY Institute for Macromolecular Assemblies, New York, NY 10031, USA
| | - Joan Rigau
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics, Consorci CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus de Bellaterra UAB, E-08193, Cerdanyola Del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marisa Molinas
- Laboratori Del Suro, Departament de Biologia, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, Girona, E-17071 Spain
| | - Mercè Figueras
- Laboratori Del Suro, Departament de Biologia, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, Girona, E-17071 Spain
| | - Olga Serra
- Laboratori Del Suro, Departament de Biologia, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, Girona, E-17071 Spain
| | - Ruth E Stark
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The City College of New York, City University of New York and CUNY Institute for Macromolecular Assemblies, New York, NY 10031, USA; Program in Biochemistry, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA; Program in Chemistry, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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Processing, Valorization and Application of Bio-Waste Derived Compounds from Potato, Tomato, Olive and Cereals: A Review. SUSTAINABILITY 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/su9081492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Aura AM, Holopainen-Mantila U, Sibakov J, Kössö T, Mokkila M, Kaisa P. Bilberry and bilberry press cake as sources of dietary fibre. Food Nutr Res 2015; 59:28367. [PMID: 26652738 PMCID: PMC4677278 DOI: 10.3402/fnr.v59.28367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Revised: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dietary recommendations for Nordic countries urge the use of plant foods as a basis for healthy nutrition. Currently, the level of dietary fibre (DF) intake is not adequate. Berries are an elementary part of the recommended Nordic healthy diet and could be consumed in higher amounts. MATERIALS AND METHODS Finnish bilberries and a bilberry press cake from juice processing were studied for DF content, carbohydrate composition, and non-carbohydrate fibre content, which was analysed as sulphuric acid insoluble and soluble material. The microstructure of all samples was also studied using light microscopy and toluidine blue O, calcofluor, and acid fuchsin staining. RESULTS The total DF contents of fresh and freeze-dried bilberries and the press cake were 3.0, 24.1, and 58.9%, respectively. Most of the DF was insoluble. Only about half of it was carbohydrate, the rest being mostly sulphuric acid-insoluble material, waxy cutin from skins, and resilient seeds. Bilberry seeds represented over half of the press cake fraction, and in addition to skin, they were the major DF sources. Microscopy revealed that skins in the press cake were intact and the surface of the seeds had thick-walled cells. CONCLUSIONS Bilberry press cake is thus a good source of insoluble non-carbohydrate DF, and could be used to provide DF-rich foods to contribute to versatile intake of DF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Marja Aura
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Espoo, Finland;
| | | | - Juhani Sibakov
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Espoo, Finland
| | - Tuija Kössö
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Espoo, Finland
| | - Mirja Mokkila
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Espoo, Finland
| | - Poutanen Kaisa
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Espoo, Finland
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Cai H, Lin L, Ding S, Cui X, Chen Z. Fast quantification of fatty acid profile of intact fish by intermolecular double-quantum coherence1H-NMR spectroscopy. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201500309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Honghao Cai
- Department of Electronic Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plasma and Magnetic Resonance, State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces; Xiamen University; Xiamen P. R. China
- Department of Chemistry; National Sun Yat-sen University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
| | - Liangjie Lin
- Department of Electronic Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plasma and Magnetic Resonance, State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces; Xiamen University; Xiamen P. R. China
| | - Shangwu Ding
- Department of Chemistry; National Sun Yat-sen University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
| | - Xiaohong Cui
- Department of Electronic Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plasma and Magnetic Resonance, State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces; Xiamen University; Xiamen P. R. China
| | - Zhong Chen
- Department of Electronic Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plasma and Magnetic Resonance, State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces; Xiamen University; Xiamen P. R. China
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Serra O, Chatterjee S, Figueras M, Molinas M, Stark RE. Deconstructing a plant macromolecular assembly: chemical architecture, molecular flexibility, and mechanical performance of natural and engineered potato suberins. Biomacromolecules 2014; 15:799-811. [PMID: 24502663 PMCID: PMC3983150 DOI: 10.1021/bm401620d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2013] [Revised: 02/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Periderms present in plant barks are essential protective barriers to water diffusion, mechanical breakdown, and pathogenic invasion. They consist of densely packed layers of dead cells with cell walls that are embedded with suberin. Understanding the interplay of molecular structure, dynamics, and biomechanics in these cell wall-associated insoluble amorphous polymeric assemblies presents substantial investigative challenges. We report solid-state NMR coordinated with FT-IR and tensile strength measurements for periderms from native and wound-healing potatoes and from potatoes with genetically modified suberins. The analyses include the intact suberin aromatic-aliphatic polymer and cell-wall polysaccharides, previously reported soluble depolymerized transmethylation products, and undegraded residues including suberan. Wound-healing suberized potato cell walls, which are 2 orders of magnitude more permeable to water than native periderms, display a strikingly enhanced hydrophilic-hydrophobic balance, a degradation-resistant aromatic domain, and flexibility suggestive of an altered supramolecular organization in the periderm. Suppression of ferulate ester formation in suberin and associated wax remodels the periderm with more flexible aliphatic chains and abundant aromatic constituents that can resist transesterification, attenuates cooperative hydroxyfatty acid motions, and produces a mechanically compromised and highly water-permeable periderm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Serra
- Laboratori
del Suro, Departament de Biologia, Universitat
de Girona, E-17071, Girona, Spain
| | - Subhasish Chatterjee
- Department
of Chemistry, City College of New York, City University of New York, Graduate Center and Institute for Macromolecular
Assemblies, New York, New York 10031, United
States
| | - Mercè Figueras
- Laboratori
del Suro, Departament de Biologia, Universitat
de Girona, E-17071, Girona, Spain
| | - Marisa Molinas
- Laboratori
del Suro, Departament de Biologia, Universitat
de Girona, E-17071, Girona, Spain
| | - Ruth E. Stark
- Department
of Chemistry, City College of New York, City University of New York, Graduate Center and Institute for Macromolecular
Assemblies, New York, New York 10031, United
States
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Kortesniemi M, Sinkkonen J, Yang B, Kallio H. 1H NMR spectroscopy reveals the effect of genotype and growth conditions on composition of sea buckthorn (Hippophaë rhamnoides L.) berries. Food Chem 2014; 147:138-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.09.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 07/18/2013] [Accepted: 09/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Tsubaki S, Sugimura K, Teramoto Y, Yonemori K, Azuma JI. Cuticular membrane of Fuyu persimmon fruit is strengthened by triterpenoid nano-fillers. PLoS One 2013; 8:e75275. [PMID: 24086493 PMCID: PMC3782500 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2013] [Accepted: 08/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanical defensive performance of fruit cuticular membranes (CMs) is largely dependent on the molecular arrangement of their constituents. Here, we elucidated nano-sized interactions between cutin and triterpenoids in the cuticular matrix of Fuyu persimmon fruits (Diospyroskaki Thunb. cv. Fuyu), focusing on the mechanical properties using a combination of polymer analyses. The fruit CMs of Fuyu were primarily composed of wax (34.7%), which was predominantly triterpenoids followed by higher aliphatic compounds, and cutin (48.4%), primarily consisting of 9,10-epoxy-18-hydroxyoctadecanoic acid and 9,10,18-trihydroxyoctadecanoic acid. Based on the tensile tests of the CM, the removal of wax lead to a considerable decrease in the maximum stress and elastic modulus accompanied by an increase in the maximum strain, indicating that wax is of significant importance for maintaining the mechanical strength of the CM. Wide-angle X-ray diffraction and relaxation time measurements using solid-state (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance indicated that the triterpenoids in the cuticular matrix construct a nanocomposite at a mixing scale below 20-24 nm; however, the higher aliphatic compounds did not exhibit clear interactions with cutin. The results indicated that the triterpenoids in the cuticular matrix endow toughness to the CM by functioning as a nanofiller.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuntaro Tsubaki
- Science Research Center, Kochi University, Kochi-shi, Kochi, Japan
| | - Kazuki Sugimura
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa Oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | - Keizo Yonemori
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa Oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Jun-ichi Azuma
- Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
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Tsubaki S, Azuma JI. Total fractionation of green tea residue by microwave-assisted alkaline pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2013; 131:485-91. [PMID: 23384782 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2013.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2012] [Revised: 12/30/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Total refinery of constituents of green tea residue was achieved by combination of microwave-assisted alkaline pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis. Alkaline pretreatment was effective at separating pectic polysaccharides, protein, phenolic compounds and aliphatic compounds (probably originating from cuticular components), and the solubilization rate was attained 64–74% by heating at 120–200 °C. The higher heating value (HHV) of alkali-soluble fraction attained 20.1 MJ/kg, indicating its usability as black-liquor-like biofuel. Successive cellulolytic enzymatic hydrolysis mainly converted cellulose into glucose and attained the maximum solubilization rate of 89%. Final residue was predominantly composed of aliphatic cuticular components with high proportion in 9,10,18-trihydroxyoctadecanoic acid (30.1–48.6%). These cuticular components are potential alternative feedstock for aliphatic compounds commonly found in oil plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuntaro Tsubaki
- Division of Environmental Science and Technology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan.
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Tsubaki S, Sakumoto S, Uemura N, Azuma JI. Compositional analysis of leaf cuticular membranes isolated from tea plants (Camellia sinensis L.). Food Chem 2012; 138:286-90. [PMID: 23265489 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.10.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2012] [Revised: 10/09/2012] [Accepted: 10/19/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Chemical constituents of cuticular membranes (CMs) isolated from three tea cultivars (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze cvs. Yabukita, Samidori and Gokou) were compared. All CMs from the adaxial side of the leaves showed higher accumulation of wax, cutin and polysaccharide, while those from the abaxial side were abundant in cutan, showing the adaptation of the adaxial side to abiotic stresses, such as wind and rain, in contrast to the abaxial side, which provides defence against pathogens. Yabukita, a major tea cultivar in Japan, developed thick CMs while Samidori and Gokou, shade-cultivated tea cultivars, had lighter CMs, reflecting their thin and soft leaves. CMs rapidly accumulated 9,10-epoxy-18-hydroxyoctadecanoic acid at a very early stage of leaf development. Additionally, shade treatment did not influence cutin biosynthesis in CMs, reflecting high adaptation of tea leaves under low light levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuntaro Tsubaki
- Division of Environmental Science and Technology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan.
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Takahashi Y, Tsubaki S, Sakamoto M, Watanabe S, Azuma JI. Growth-dependent chemical and mechanical properties of cuticular membranes from leaves of Sonneratia alba. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2012; 35:1201-10. [PMID: 22239411 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2012.02482.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Chemical and mechanical properties of the leaf cuticular membranes (CMs) of a mangrove, Sonneratia alba J. Smith, were analysed at various leaf development stages to evaluate their tolerance to environmental stress. Our analyses demonstrate that the CMs from leaves of S. alba at different growth stages are generally rich in wax (21.5-25.7%) and cutin (52.4-63.4%) which rapidly accumulate at the early stages of leaf growth, while cutan (4.3-10.3%) and polysaccharide (2.3-7.7%) continuously accumulate throughout growth. Immature CMs are physically weak and highly viscoelastic. However, CMs become strengthened and stiffened during leaf expansion and maturation (by factors of about 1.5 and 2.4, respectively) while their flexibility decreases (68-83% decrease). Finally, the CMs lose their strength at the senescent stage (30-43% decreasement). Correlation analysis between chemical composition and mechanical properties revealed that the cutin matrix is mainly responsible for the high viscoelastic properties of CMs, while wax, cutan and polysaccharide contributed to their elasticity. Wax also affected the strength of the CMs, whereas cutan and polysaccharide showed rigidizing effect. Rapid accumulation of wax and cutin in the CMs after bud burst followed by the mechanical supports of cutan and polysaccharide in an isolateral manner contributed to the remarkable environmental tolerance of S. alba.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Takahashi
- Division of Environmental Science and Technology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa Oiwake-cho, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
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Dobson G, Shrestha M, Hilz H, Karjalainen R, McDougall G, Stewart D. Lipophilic components in black currant seed and pomace extracts. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201100313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Järvinen R, Rauhala H, Holopainen U, Kallio H. Differences in suberin content and composition between two varieties of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) and effect of post-harvest storage to the composition. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2011.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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