Acridine derivatives (PANHs, azaarenes) in raw, fried or grilled pork from different origins, and PANH formation during pork thermal processing

A review of hazards in meat products: Multiple pathways, hazards and mitigation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are stable carcinogens that are widely distributed in the environment and food, and humans are exposed to PAHs primarily through the respiratory tracts, dermal contact, and dietary intake. Meat products are an essential part of the human diet, and the formation of PAHs during meat processing is unavoidable. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of PAHs in meat products can be a contribution to the minimization of human exposure dose. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive description of the toxicological analysis of PAHs intake and the various production pathways. The distribution of different PAHs in various meat products, including poultry and aquatic products, is analyzed. The discussion focuses on controlling PAHs through the use of endogenous marinades and antioxidants as well as reducing exogenous particulate matter-PAHs attachment. In addition, potential strategies for PAHs reduction and possible directions for future research are proposed.

Application of High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection for Non-Polar Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines and Acridine Derivatives Determination in Pork Loin Roasted in a Roasting Bag

Heat treatment of meat can lead to the formation of carcinogenic organic compounds. The influence of dried fruits on the formation of non-polar heterocyclic aromatic amines (carbolines) and nitrogen derivatives of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (azaarenes) in roasted pork loin was elucidated. Two hundred grams of fruit per 1 kg of meat were used as stuffing. Carbolines, derivatives of pyridoimidazole and pyridoindole, and azaarenes (benzoacridines and dibenzoacridines) were determined by means of high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The total concentration of six δ-, γ- and α-carbolines in roasted pork loin was 1.3 ng/g. This content decreased by 64%, 58%, and 54% in pork loin stuffed with prunes, apricots, and cranberries, respectively. Concentrations of β-carbolines (harmane and norharmane) increased under the influence of added fruits. The norharmane content increased the most, from 2.2 ng/g in the control sample to 12.3 ng/g in meat prepared with cranberries. The harmane content increased from 1.0 ng/g to 3.6 ng/g in meat with prunes. The total concentration of azaarenes (two benzoacridines and dibenzo[a,c]acridine), which was close to 0.1 ng/g, decreased in dishes with prunes and apricots by 54% and 12%, respectively. Azaarenes were not found in samples of meat stuffed with cranberries.

The chemical composition and toxicological effects of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) emitted from different cooking styles

The mass, chemical composition and toxicological properties of fine particulates (PM_2.5) emitted from cooking activities in three Hong Kong based restaurants and two simulated cooking experiments were characterized. Extracts from the PM_2.5 samples elicited significant biological activities [cell viability, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), DNA damage and inflammation effect (TNF-α)] in a dose-dependent manner. The composition of PAHs, oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs) and azaarenes (AZAs) mixtures differed between samples. The concentration ranges of the Σ30PAHs, Σ17OPAHs and Σ4AZAs and Σ7Carbonyls in the samples were 9627-23,452 pg m^-3, 503-3700 pg m^-3, 33-263 pg m^-3 and 158 - 5328 ng m^-3, respectively. Cell viability caused by extracts from the samples was positively correlated to the concentration of benzo[a]anthracene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene and 1,4-naphthoquinone in the PM_2.5 extracts. Cellular ROS production (upon exposure to extracts) was positively correlated with the concentrations of PM_2.5, decaldehyde, acridine, Σ17OPAHs and 7 individual OPAHs. TNF-α showed significant positive correlations with the concentrations of most chemical species (elemental carbon, 16 individual PAHs including benzo[a]pyrene, Σ30PAHs, SO₄^2-, Ca²⁺, Ca, Na, K, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn). The concentrations of Al, Ti, Mn, Σ30PAHs and 8 individual PAHs including benzo[a]pyrene in the samples were positively correlated with DNA damage caused by extracts from the samples. This study demonstrates that inhalation of PM_2.5 emitted from cooking could result in adverse human health effects.

The effect of gas versus charcoal open flames on the induction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cooked meat: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Open flames of gas and charcoal can induce polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in cooked meat. The current study aimed to compare the effect of gas and charcoal open flames on the induction of PAHs in cooked meat using a meta-analysis approach.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted electronically based on the PRISMA guidelines. Experimental studies comparing the PAHs content of cooked meat over open flames of gas and charcoal were searched using the appropriate keywords until June 2018.

RESULTS

Of 1137 papers retrieved, 7 with a total sample size of 474 meat samples were used in the meta-analysis. The mean difference (MD) between the gas and charcoal cooking methods in the induction of each PAH was 2.053 μg/Kg. (95%CI: 1.022-3.085 μg/Kg; P < 0.001). The subgroup analysis of 17 trials indicated the difference between the two cooking methods increases when red meat rather than white meat is cooked (MD in red meat: 3.499 μg/Kg; 95%CI: 2.030-4.967; P < 0.0001 vs. MD in white meat: 3.319 μg/Kg; 95% CI: 1.689-4.950; P < 0.0001). Interestingly, studies that analyzed meat samples for fewer PAHs (cut-off ≤7) found a much wider difference between gas and charcoal-cooked meat (MD: 5.106 μg/Kg; (95% CI: 2.162-8.049; P < 0.001 in studies with ≤7 PAHs vs. MD: 1.447 μg/Kg; 95% CI: 0.628-2.266; P < 0.001 in studies with >7 PAHs).

CONCLUSIONS

It is necessary to avoid open flames of charcoal as the heat source or change the geometry of charcoal-fired cookstoves to prevent fat dripping on the fire and thus, excessive PAHs induction.

7H-Dibenzo[c,g]carbazole: Metabolic pathways and toxicity

7H-Dibenzo[c,g]carbazole (DBC), a local and systemic carcinogen in animal studies, is a common environmental pollutant. It generally co-occurs in a variety of organic complex mixtures derived from incomplete combustion of organic matter. Despite high lipophilicity, DBC is more water-soluble and faster metabolized than the homocyclic aromatics. Moreover, greater polarity, high bioaccumulation potential, and persistence in the environment may imply DBC's higher biological significance and impact on human health, even at lower concentrations. The biotransformation pathways of DBC are incompletely known and the ultimate carcinogenic metabolite(s) are not clearly identified as yet. Structure-biological studies suggest two ways of activation: at the ring carbon atoms and at the pyrrole nitrogen. It is supposed that the particular pathway of biotransformation might be connected with the tissue/organ specificity of DBC. Cytochrome P450 (CYP) family of enzymes plays a pivotal role in the metabolism of DBC; though, the one-electron activation and the aldo-keto reductase-catalyzed oxidation are also involved in metabolic activation. Additionally, DBC can be photoactivated even at physiologically relevant doses of UVA light due to the extended aromatic ring system resulting in strong genotoxicity and oxidative stress. The goal of this review is to summarize current knowledge on mechanisms of DBC activation and possible implications for toxicity, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity.

Inhibitory profiles of spices against free and protein-bound heterocyclic amines of roast beef patties as revealed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and principal component analysis

The effects of various levels of chili pepper, Sichuan pepper, and black pepper on the amounts of 17 heterocyclic amines (HAs) from seven categories of both free and protein-bound states in roast beef patties were assessed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry combined with principal component analysis. Three groups of HA, including imidazopyridines (DMIP), imidazoquinoxalines (MeIQx and 4,8-MeIQx), and β-carbolines (norharman and harman), were detected and quantified in both their free and protein-bound states, whereas PhIP was detected only in its free state, and imidazoquinolines (IQ, IQ[4,5-b], and MeIQ), α-carbolines (AαC and MeAαC), and phenylpyridines (Phe-P-1) were detected only in their protein-bound states. The results demonstrate that the peppers at all three levels had significant inhibitory effects on free PhIP, DMIP, MeIQx, and 4,8-DiMeIQx and could promote free norharman. Harman was significantly suppressed by chili pepper and black pepper, but enhanced by Sichuan pepper. All 11 protein-bound HAs, with the exception of IQ, IQ[4,5-b], and MeIQx with added chili pepper, were significantly reduced by the three peppers. The total amounts of the free and protein-bound states of all 11 HAs (1692.4 ± 78.9 ng g^-1), imidazopyridines (5.5 ± 0.2 ng g^-1), imidazoquinolines (7.2 ± 0.2 ng g^-1), imidazoquinoxalines (6.9 ± 0.2 ng g^-1), α-carbolines (20.1 ± 0.4 ng g^-1), and β-carbolines (1651.7 ± 79.5 ng g^-1) were suppressed by each level of all of the three peppers except for 0.5% and 1.0% chili pepper. Our findings may facilitate the inhibition of HA formation in the processing of meat products.

The effects of different spices and fat types on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines in barbecued sucuk

BACKGROUND

Sucuk is one of the popular traditional Turkish meat products. The aim of this research was to evaluate the effects of different spices (clove, 0.2%; cinnamon, 0.5%) and animal fat types (beef fat, tallow, subcutaneous and tail fat) on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amine (HCA) in barbecued sucuk.

RESULTS

Although 2-amino-3-methyl-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (MeAαC) could not be detected in the any of the samples, 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (IQx) (up to 0.54 ng g^-1 ), 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ) (up to 5.96 ng g^-1 ), 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx) (up to 0.21 ng g^-1 ), 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (MeIQ) (up to 0.34 ng g^-1 ), 2-amino-3,7,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (7,8-DiMeIQx) (up to 0.32 ng g^-1 ), 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (4,8-DiMeIQx) (up to 0.19 ng g^-1 ), 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) (up to 1.94 ng g^-1 ) and 2-amino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (AαC) (up to 0.98 ng g^-1 ) were found in the barbecued sucuk samples.

CONCLUSION

The results of the current study have shown that HCAs could be formed in barbecued sucuk. Total HCA can be affected by adding different fat types; however, adding clove and cinnamon decreased the total HCA content in the subcutaneous fat group of sucuk samples. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Formation of heterocyclic amines in Chinese marinated meat: effects of animal species and ingredients (rock candy, soy sauce and rice wine)

BACKGROUND

Heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) are one type of neo-formed contaminants in protein-rich foods during heat processing. Recently, accumulative studies have focused on the formation of HAs in Western foods. However, there is little knowledge about the occurrence of HAAs in traditional Chinese foods. The objective of this study was to determinate the contents of main HAs in traditional marinated meat products by UPLC-MS/MS, and to investigate the effects of animal species and the ingredients (soy sauce, rock candy, and rice wine) on the formation of HAAs in marinated meats.

RESULTS

Five HAs - 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]-quinolone (IQ), 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQ), 9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (Norharman) and l-methyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (Harman) - were detected in 12 marinated meats, but 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) was only found in three chicken marinates. The animal species and ingredients (soy sauce, rock candy and rice wine) have significant influence on the formation of HAAs in meat marinates. Beef had the highest content of total HAAs compared with pork, mutton and chicken. Meanwhile, soy sauce contributed to the formation of HAAs more greatly than rock candy, soy sauce, and rice wine.

CONCLUSION

Choice of raw materials and optimisation of ingredients recipe should be become a critical point to control the HAAs formation in marinated meats. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Formation of Free and Protein-Bound Heterocyclic Amines in Roast Beef Patties Assessed by UPLC-MS/MS

The effect of different roasting temperatures on the amounts of 17 heterocyclic amines (HAs) from seven categories of both free and protein-bound states in roast beef patties was assessed using an ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method. There were increased amounts and more types of HAs detected at higher roasting temperatures. Nine free HAs were detected at 250 °C, including PhIP (14.34 ± 0.36 ng/g), DMIP (1.02 ± 0.07 ng/g), 1,5,6-TMIP (1.70 ± 0.08 ng/g), MeIQ (0.36 ± 0.01 ng/g), IQx (0.37 ± 0.04 ng/g), MeIQx (9.94 ± 0.61 ng/g), 4,8-DiMeIQx (0.90 ± 0.05 ng/g), norharman (6.03 ± 0.30 ng/g), and harman (2.60 ± 0.09 ng/g). Also, 37.32 ng/g of total free HAs was generated. Twelve protein-bound HAs were detected in roast beef patties at 250 °C, including PhIP (1.70 ± 0.13 ng/g), DMIP (2.33 ± 0.25 ng/g), 1,5,6-TMIP (3.62 ± 0.49 ng/g), MeIQ (5.47 ± 0.18 ng/g), IQ[4,5-b] (0.70 ± 0.03 ng/g) MeIQx (4.03 ± 0.41 ng/g), 4,8-DiMeIQx (0.67 ± 0.09 ng/g), MeAαC (19.51 ± 1.12 ng/g), AαC (2.91 ± 0.45 ng/g), norharman (1304.96 ± 110.73 ng/g), harman (400.85 ± 25.29 ng/g), and Phe-P-1 (0.81 ± 0.06 ng/g). The highest amount of protein-bound HAs was 2913.31 ng/g at 175 °C. PhIP tended to exist in a free state, whereas MeIQ, harman, and norharman tended to exist in a protein-bound state. Furthermore, Phe-P-1, MeAαC, and AαC were detected only in a protein-bound state. These results could be useful for evaluating the exposure to HAs in a daily diet.

Effects of waxy rice starch and short chain amylose (SCA) on the formation of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) in a model system

A possible mechanism of waxy rice starch and SCA for inhibiting PhIP formation in the model system is also proposed.