Antitumor and antimetastatic activities of pectic polysaccharides isolated from persimmon leaves mediated by enhanced natural killer cell activity

An in-depth review: Unraveling the extraction, structure, bio-functionalities, target molecules, and applications of pectic polysaccharides

Pectic polysaccharides have long been a challenging subject of research in the field of macromolecular science, given their complex structures and wide range of biological effects. However, the extensive exploration of pectic polysaccharides has been limited due to the intricacy of their structures. In this comprehensive review, we aim to provide a thorough summary of the existing knowledge on pectic polysaccharides, with a particular focus on aspects such as classification, extraction methodologies, structural analysis, elucidation of biological activities, and exploration of target molecules and signaling pathways. By conducting a comprehensive analysis of existing literature and research achievements, we strive to establish a comprehensive and systematic framework that can serve as a reference and guide for further investigations into pectic polysaccharides. Furthermore, this review delves into the applications of pectic polysaccharides beyond their fundamental attributes and characteristics, exploring their potential in fields such as materials, food, and pharmaceuticals. We pay special attention to the promising opportunities for pectic polysaccharides in the pharmaceutical domain and provide an overview of related drug development research. The aim of this review is to facilitate a holistic understanding of pectic polysaccharides by incorporating multifaceted research, providing valuable insights for further in-depth investigations into this significant polymer.

Sweeten the pill: Multi-faceted polysaccharide-based carriers for colorectal cancer treatment

Colorectal cancer (CRC) ranks as the second deadliest cancer globally and the third most common malignant tumor. While surgery remains the primary treatment for CRC, alternative therapies such as chemotherapy, molecular targeted therapy, and immunotherapy are also commonly used. The significant side effects and toxicity of conventional drugs drive the search for novel targeted therapies, including the design of advanced drug delivery systems. Polysaccharide-based biopolymers, with their low toxicity, non-immunogenic behavior, synergistic interactions with other biopolymers, and tissue and cell compatibility, emerge as excellent drug carriers for this application. This review aims to provide an in-depth overview of recent advancements in developing polysaccharide-based biopolymeric carriers for anticancer compounds in the treatment of CRC. We highlight the multifunctional nature of polysaccharides, showcasing their potential as standalone drug carriers or as integral components of intelligent robotic devices for biomedical therapeutic applications. In addition to exploring the opportunities for using carbohydrate polymers in CRC treatment, we address the challenges and failures that may limit their applicability in biomedical research, as well as summarize the recent preclinical and clinical trials, resulting in several commercialization attempts. This comprehensive overview critically summarizes the potential of polysaccharide-based biomaterials in CRC treatment.

Empirical use, phytochemical, and pharmacological effects in wound healing activities of compounds in Diospyros leaves: A review of traditional medicine for potential new plant-derived drugs

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Wound healing extracts' activity is increasingly being studied in the field of traditional medicine. Among medicinal plants, Diospyros is known to have healing effects on wounds, along with activities such as anti-biofilm, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidant, and regulation of the immune system. However, the current use of the leaves could be more optimal, and the scientific basis needs to be improved.

AIM OF THIS REVIEW

This review aimed to critically examine the literature on the traditional use and bioactive metabolites of several Diospyros species, demonstrating the significant potential in wound healing, antibacterial, anti-biofilm, regulatory effect on the immune system, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities. The critical analysis was conducted to provide robust perspectives and recommendations for future studies on the use of Diospyros potential resources of wound healing material, including related activities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Exploratory studies on Diospyros species over the past 20 years were examined, with a focus on general information, practical use, secondary metabolite, and pharmacological activities related to wound healing. Data were meticulously collected from scientific databases including Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Taylor & Francis, Google Scholar, PubMed as well as various botanical and biodiversity sources. Furthermore, manual searches were conducted to ensure comprehensive coverage. Reference manager software was used to manage articles and remove duplicates, then the gathered data were summarized and verified, ensuring the thoroughness and validity of the review process.

RESULTS

The results showed that Diospyros leaves have great potential to be harnessed as herbal medications, evidenced by both scientific findings and community uses. Various substances, including flavonoids, coumarins, tannins, terpenoids, steroids, lignans, quinones, and secoiridoids were identified. Chemical compound investigations in both in vivo and in vitro studies of Diospyros leaves reported wound healing activity, as well as antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-biofilm, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties.

CONCLUSION

The review highlights the traditional uses and bioactive metabolites of Diospyros species in wound healing, identifying various beneficial compounds such as flavonoids and tannins. These compounds demonstrate various therapeutic effects, including antibacterial, anti-biofilm, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities. Diospyros leaf extracts have a favorable safety profile, but further studies, including in vivo investigations and clinical trials, are necessary to confirm their efficacy and safety for clinical applications. Diospyros leaf extracts have significant potential for the development of wound healing substances due to the wide range of bioactivities targeting various stages of wound healing.

A critical review of persimmon-derived pectin: Innovations in extraction, structural characterization, biological potentials, and health-promoting effects

Persimmon-derived pectin (PP) is a versatile dietary polysaccharide with considerable industrial and biological significance, demonstrating a range of functionalities and health-promoting benefits. This review explores the changes in PP during postharvest and processing, detailing structural alterations and extraction techniques for optimal characteristics. Key functional attributes of PP-such as emulsification, rheology, antioxidant capacity, immunomodulation, and gut microbiota regulation-highlight its potential applications in food, healthcare, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. The review also explores methods to enhance the functional properties of PP through synergistic interactions with polyphenols. A strategic roadmap for advancing PP research is proposed, connecting extraction methods, structural characteristics, and functional properties to tailor PP for specific applications in food science and technology. Overall, persimmon-derived pectin is positioned as a valuable food-derived bioactive ingredient with diverse capabilities, poised to drive innovation and advance nutritional science across multiple sectors.

Immunostimulating effects of ulvan type polysaccharide isolated from Korean Ulva pertusa in cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed BALB/c mice

This study aimed to determine the immunostimulatory activities of ulvan type polysaccharides isolated from Ulva pertusa. First, U. pertusa polysaccharide (UPP) mainly consists of rhamnose, glucuronic acid, iduronic acid, and xylose, which are typical ulvan type monosaccharides. UPP induced phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-kappa B pathways in macrophages, subsequently triggering cytokine release and phagocytosis. The effects were closely associated with pattern recognition receptors such as dectin-1, mannose receptor, CD11b, CD14, and Toll-like receptors 2 and 4. Moreover, prophylactic administration of UPP was found to protect against body weight loss and lymphatic organ damage in cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed mice. In addition, UPP demonstrated significant stimulatory effects on various immunocytes, such as T cells, B cells, macrophages, and natural killer cells derived from the spleen. These effects were closely related to the mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-kappa B pathways, and significant secretion of immunostimulatory cytokines such as IL-6, -12, and TNF-α was noted in both blood and spleen samples. Impairment of the short-chain fatty acid balance in the cecum was prevented by UPP administration in a dose-dependent manner. Consequently, these results suggest that the UPP isolated from U. pertusa contributes to immune system activation.

Natural polysaccharides and their derivatives targeting the tumor microenvironment: A review

Polysaccharides have gained attention as valuable supplements and natural medicinal resources, particularly for their anti-tumor properties. Their low toxicity and potent anti-tumor effects make them promising candidates for cancer prevention and treatment. The tumor microenvironment is crucial in tumor development and offers potential avenues for novel cancer therapies. Research indicates that polysaccharides can positively influence the tumor microenvironment. However, the structural complexity of most anti-tumor polysaccharides, often heteropolysaccharides, poses challenges for structural analysis. To enhance their pharmacological activity, researchers have modified the structure and properties of natural polysaccharides based on structure-activity relationships, and they have discovered that many polysaccharides exhibit significantly enhanced anti-tumor activity after chemical modification. This article reviews recent strategies for targeting the tumor microenvironment with polysaccharides and briefly discusses the structure-activity relationships of anti-tumor polysaccharides. It also summarises the main chemical modification methods of polysaccharides and discusses the impact of chemical modifications on the anti-tumor activity of polysaccharides. The review aims to lay a theoretical foundation for the development of anti-tumor polysaccharides and their derivatives.

Persimmon Leaves: Nutritional, Pharmaceutical, and Industrial Potential-A Review

Persimmon is a delicious fruit, and its leaves are considered a valuable ingredient in food, beverage, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic sectors. Traditionally, persimmon leaves (PL) are used as a functional tea in Asian culture to cure different ailments, and are also incorporated into various food and cosmeceutical products as a functional ingredient. PL mainly contain flavonoids, terpenoids, and polysaccharides, along with other constituents such as carotenoids, organic acids, chlorophylls, vitamin C, and minerals. The major phenolic compounds in PL are proanthocyanidins, quercetin, isoquercetin, catechin, flavonol glucosides, and kaempferol. Meanwhile, ursolic acid, rotungenic acid, barbinervic acid, and uvaol are the principal terpenoids. These compounds demonstrate a wide range of pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anticancer, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, anti-tyrosinase, antiallergic, and antiglaucoma properties. This review summarizes the latest information on PL, mainly distribution, traditional uses, industrial potential, and bioactive compounds, as well as their potential action mechanisms in exhibiting biological activities. In addition, the effect of seasonality and geographical locations on the content and function of these biomolecules are discussed.

Pharmaceutical and drug delivery applications of pectin and its modified nanocomposites

Due to their natural availability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, nontoxicity, flexibility, as well as improved structural and functional characteristics, pectin and pectin-based nanocomposites have become an interesting area of numerous researchers. Pectin is a polysaccharide that comes from plants and is used in a variety of products. The significance of pectin polysaccharide and its modified nanocomposites in a number of applications has been shown in numerous reviews. On their uses in pharmaceutical and medication delivery, there are, however, few review publications. The majority of papers on pectin polysaccharide do not structure their explanations of drug distribution and medicinal application. The biological application of pectin nanocomposite is also explained in this review, along with a recent publication. As a result, the goal of this review was in-depth analysis to summarize biological application of pectin and its modified nanocomposites. Due to their exceptional physicochemical and biological characteristics, pectin and its nanocomposites are remarkable materials for medicinal applications. In addition to enhancing the immune system, controlling blood cholesterol, and other things, they have been shown to have anticancer, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antibacterial properties. Because of their biocompatibility and properties that allow for regulated release, they have also received a lot of interest as drug carriers in targeted drug delivery systems. They have been used to administer medications to treat cancer, inflammation, pain, Alzheimer's, bacteria, and relax muscles. This review found that pectin and its derivatives have better drug delivery efficiency and are viable candidates for a wide range of medicinal applications. It has been advised to conduct further research on the subject of toxicity in order to produce commercial formulations that can serve as both therapeutic agents and drug carriers.

Structural features and anticancer mechanisms of pectic polysaccharides: A review

The anticancer activity of pectic polysaccharides (PPs) was proved by numerous studies, and which also indicated that the bioactivity of PPs was closely related to its complicated structures. Based on the summary and analysis about structure characteristics and corresponding enzymatic process of the reported PPs, the anticancer mechanism and related structural features were systematically clarified. It was found that not only the direct effects on the cancer cells by proliferation inhibition or apoptosis, but also the regulation of immune system, gut microbiota and gut metabolism as indirect effects, jointly played important roles in the anticancer of PPs. Nevertheless, during the study of PPs as promising anticancer components, the exact structure-function relationship, digestion process in vivo, and comprehensive action mechanism are still not well understanding. With the unveiling of the proposed issues, it is believed that PPs are promising to be exploited as effective cancer therapy/adjunctive therapy drugs or functional foods.

Elucidation of the microstructure of an immuno-stimulatory polysaccharide purified from Korean red ginseng using sequential hydrolysis

The elucidation of the structural characteristics of polysaccharides from natural sources is generally difficult owing to their structural complexity and heterogeneity. In our previous study, an immuno-stimulatory polysaccharide (RGP-AP-I) was isolated from Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer). The present study aims to elucidate the structural characteristics of RGP-AP-I. Sequential enzyme hydrolysis was performed using four specific glycosylases, and chemical cleavage via β-elimination was carried out to determine the fine structure of RGP-AP-I. The degraded fragments were chemically identified using various chromatographic and spectrometric analyses, including HPLC-UVD, GC-MS, and tandem mass spectrometry. The results indicated that RGP-AP-I comprises a rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) backbone with repeating disaccharide units [→2)-Rhap-(1 → 4)-GalAp-(1→] and three side chains substituted at the C(O)4 position of the rhamnose residue in the backbone. The three side chains were identified as a highly branched α-(1 → 5)-arabinan, a branched β-(1 → 4)-galactan, and an arabino-β-3,6-galactan. Our results represent the first findings regarding the fine structure of the immuno-stimulatory polysaccharide RG-AP-I isolated from red ginseng.

Effects of a High-Molecular-Weight Polysaccharides Isolated from Korean Persimmon on the Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antiwrinkle Activity

Persimmon (Diospyros kaki), a familiar and widespread fruit worldwide, is known to exhibit several physiological effects because of the presence of pharmacologically active compounds called phytochemicals. However, its high-molecular-weight compounds, particularly polysaccharides, have not been extensively studied. In this study, D. kaki extract (DK) was fractionated into low- and high-molecular-weight fractions (DK-L and DK-H, respectively) through ethanol fractionation, and their effects on antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiwrinkle activities were investigated by an in vitro system. DK-H contained significantly higher contents of neutral sugar, uronic acid, and polyphenols compared to DK and DK-L. Furthermore, DK-H exhibited significantly improved pharmacological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiwrinkle properties, compared to those of DK and DK-L, demonstrating that DK-H may play an important role in mediating the beneficial effects of persimmon. Sugar composition analysis and molecular characterization indicated that DK-H consisted of a galacturonic acid (GalA)-rich polysaccharide with a molecular weight of >345 kDa that mainly comprised GalA and small amounts of neutral sugar and polyphenol residues. These results suggest that the bioactive fraction DK-H is likely to be a GalA-rich pectic polysaccharide containing a small number of polyphenol residues, which may be a novel candidate in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries.

Antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory capacity of nonextractable polyphenols in Mopan persimmon

This study was to evaluate and compare the polyphenols contents, antioxidant capacities, and α-glucosidase inhibitory abilities of extractable and nonextractable polyphenols (EP and NEP) in Mopan persimmon. The results showed that total phenols content of NEP was 5 times higher than that of EP, and the hydrolyzed NEP compounds displayed higher antioxidant capacity than EP in vitro by DPPH, ORAC assays. Meanwhile, NEP also exhibited inhibition capacity of α-glucosidase and were higher than that of acarbose. In addition, an in vitro model of gastrointestinal digestion was used for the release of NEP, the polyphenols content and ORAC values were obviously increased in gastric digestion stage. The result indicated that NEP in Mopan persimmon, which has often been overlooked and discarded in the past, possessed higher polyphenols content and antioxidant capacity than EP.

The Antitumor Effect of Heparin is not Mediated by Direct NK Cell Activation

Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphocytes responsible for the elimination of infected or transformed cells. The activation or inhibition of NK cells is determined by the balance of target cell ligand recognition by stimulatory and inhibitory receptors on their surface. Previous reports have suggested that the glycosaminoglycan heparin is a ligand for the natural cytotoxicity receptors NKp30, NKp44 (human), and NKp46 (both human and mouse). However, the effects of heparin on NK cell homeostasis and function remain unclear. Here, we show that heparin does not enhance NK cell proliferation or killing through NK cell activation. Alternatively, in mice models, heparin promoted NK cell survival in vitro and controlled B16-F10 melanoma metastasis development in vivo. In human NK cells, heparin promisingly increased interferon (IFN)-γ production in synergy with IL-12, although the mechanism remains elusive. Our data showed that heparin is not able to increase NK cell cytotoxicity.

The ameliorations of Ganoderma applanatum residue polysaccharides against CCl4 induced liver injury

This work investigated the protective effects of Ganoderma applanatum residue polysaccharides (GRP) on the CCl₄-induced hepatotoxicity. The results indicated that GRP showed significantly effects on preventing the increase of AST, ALT and ALP levels in serum, elevating the activities of SOD, GSH-Px and CAT, decreasing the contents of MDA and LPO, and reducing the CYP2E1 and TGF-β concentrations in CCl₄-induced mice, respectively. Meanwhile, the levels of TNF-α and IL-6 were significantly decreased, while the value of IL-10 was increased by GRP treatment. Besides, the western blot assay showed the IκBα expressions were significantly increased and the p-p65 was decreased by the treatment with GRP. The characterizations indicated that the GRP was heteropolysaccharide with lower molecular weights and α-furanoside residues. These results demonstrated that GRP might be a potential material for drug and functional food development against chemical hepatic injury.

Discrimination of Structural and Immunological Features of Polysaccharides from Persimmon Leaves at Different Maturity Stages

In this study, we investigated changes in the structural and immunological features of polysaccharides (S1-PLE0, S2-PLE0, and S3-PLE0) extracted from persimmon leaves at three different growth stages. Physicochemical analyses revealed that their chemical compositions, molecular weight distributions, and linkage types differed. High-performance size-exclusion chromatograms showed that the molecular weights of the polysaccharides increased during successive growth stages. In addition, seasonal variation of persimmon leaves affected the sugar compositions and glycosidic linkages in the polysaccharides. S2-PLE0 was composed of comparatively more galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, xylose, and galacturonic acid, showing the presence of β-glucopyranoside linkages. Significant differences also occurred in their immunostimulatory effects on RAW264.7 macrophages, with respect to which their activities could be ordered as S2-PLE0 > S3-PLE0 > S1-PLE0. Evidently, S2-PLE0 showed the greatest immunostimulatory activity by enhancing the phagocytic capacity and promoting nitric oxide (NO) and cytokines secretion through the upregulation of their gene expression in macrophages. These results suggest that differences in the structural features of polysaccharides according to the different maturity of persimmon leaves might impact their immunostimulatory properties. The results also provide a basis for optimizing persimmon leaf cultivation strategies for food and medical uses of the polysaccharides.

Biological Activity and Pharmacological Application of Pectic Polysaccharides: A Review

Pectin is a polymer with a core of alternating α-1,4-linked d-galacturonic acid and α-1,2-l-rhamnose units, as well as a variety of neutral sugars such as arabinose, galactose, and lesser amounts of other sugars. Currently, native pectins have been compared to modified ones due to the development of natural medicines and health products. In this review, the results of a study of the bioactivity of pectic polysaccharides, including its various pharmacological applications, such as its immunoregulatory, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antibacterial, antioxidant and antitumor activities, have been summarized. The potential of pectins to contribute to the enhancement of drug delivery systems has been observed.

Extraction of a Novel Cold-Water-Soluble Polysaccharide from Astragalus membranaceus and Its Antitumor and Immunological Activities

The polysaccharides of Astragalus membranaceus have received extensive study and attention, but there have been few reports on the extraction of these polysaccharides using cold water (4 °C). In this study, we fractionated a novel cold-water-soluble polysaccharide (cAMPs-1A) from Astragalus membranaceus with a 92.00% carbohydrate content using a DEAE-cellulose 52 anion exchange column and a Sephadex G-100 column. Our UV, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), high-performance gel permeation chromatography, and ion chromatography analysis results indicated the monosaccharide composition of cAMPs-1A with 1.23 × 10⁴ Da molecular weight to be fucose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, and xylose, with molar ratios of 0.01:0.06:0.20:1.00:0.06, respectively. The UV spectroscopy detected no protein and nucleic acid in cAMPs-1A. We used FTIR analysis to characterize the α-d-pyranoid configuration in cAMPs-1A. In addition, we performed animal experiments in vivo to evaluate the antitumor and immunomodulatory effects of cAMPs-1A. The results suggested that cAMPs-1A oral administration could significantly inhibit tumor growth with the inhibitory rate of 20.53%, 36.50% and 44.49%, respectively, at the dosage of 75,150, and 300 mg/kg. Moreover, cAMPs-1A treatment could also effectively protect the immune organs, promote macrophage pinocytosis, and improve the percentages of lymphocyte subsets in the peripheral blood of tumor-bearing mice. These findings demonstrate that the polysaccharide cAMPs-1A has an underlying application as natural antitumor agents.