Baltic herring (Clupea harengus membras) oil encapsulation by spray drying using a rice and whey protein blend as a coating material

Production and simulated digestion of high-load beads containing Schizochytrium oil encapsulated utilizing prilling technique

The oil from the heterotroph Schizochytrium is a rich source of n-3 PUFA, particularly DHA, and therefore highly susceptible to oxidation. The present work reports the first application of coaxial prilling for the protection of this oil through microencapsulation. After process optimization, core-shell microparticles were produced with calcium or zinc alginate at different concentrations. Encapsulates were analyzed in their tocopherol and PUFA content. Prilling lowered the earlier but had little effect on the latter. Microcapsules coated with calcium alginate (1 % and 1.75 %) had higher oil load and encapsulation efficiency and were therefore submitted to in vitro digestion together with a simulated meal. Digesta were also analyzed with HPLC-qTOF and 1H NMR and compared to undigested encapsulates. While 1 % calcium shell granted lower oil release and protection from oxidation in the simulated gastrointestinal tract, chromatographic and spectroscopic data of digesta showed higher presence of lipid digestion products.

Enhancing Encapsulation Efficiency of Chavir Essential Oil via Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Ultrasonication of Whey Protein Concentrate-Maltodextrin

This study focused on the characterization of emulsions and microparticles encapsulating Chavir essential oil (EO) by application of modified whey protein concentrate-maltodextrin (WPC-MD). Different physical, chemical, morphological, thermal, and antioxidant properties and release behavior of spray-dried microparticles were assessed. Antioxidant, solubility, emulsifying, and foaming activities of modified WPC were increased compared to those of primary material. The results indicated that the particle size distribution varied depending on the type of carriers used, with the smallest particles formed by hydrolyzed WPC (HWPC). Binary blends of modified WPC-MD led to improved particle sizes. The spray-drying yield ranged from 64.1% to 85.0%, with higher yields observed for blends of MD with sonicated WPC (UWPC). Microparticles prepared from primary WPC showed irregular and wrinkled surfaces with indentations and pores, indicating a less uniform morphology. The UWPC as a wall material led to microparticles with increased small cracks and holes on their surface. However, HWPC negatively affected the integrity of the microparticles, resulting in broken particles with irregular shapes and surface cracks, indicating poor microcapsule formation. Encapsulating EO using WPC-MD increased the thermal stability of EO significantly, enhancing the degradation temperature of EO by 2 to 2.5-fold. The application of primary WPC (alone or in combination with MD) as wall materials produced particles with the lowest antioxidant properties because the EO cannot migrate to the surface of the particles. Enzymatic hydrolysis of WPC negatively impacted microparticle integrity, potentially increasing EO release. These findings underscore the crucial role of wall materials in shaping the physical, morphological, thermal, antioxidant, and release properties of spray-dried microparticles, offering valuable insights for microencapsulation techniques.

Advances in protein-based microcapsules and their applications: A review

Due to their excellent emulsification, biocompatibility, and biological activity, proteins are widely used as microcapsule wall materials for encapsulating drugs, natural bioactive substances, essential oils, probiotics, etc. In this review, we summarize the protein-based microcapsules, discussing the types of proteins utilized in microcapsule wall materials, the preparation process, and the main factors that influence their properties. Additionally, we conclude with examples of the vital role of protein-based microcapsules in advancing the food industry from primary processing to deep processing and their potential applications in the biomedical, chemical, and textile industries. However, the low stability and controllability of protein wall materials lead to degraded performance and quality of microcapsules. Protein complexes with polysaccharides or modifications to proteins are often used to improve the thermal instability, pH sensitivity, encapsulation efficiency and antioxidant capacity of microcapsules. In addition, factors such as wall material composition, wall material ratio, the ratio of core to wall material, pH, and preparation method all play critical roles in the preparation and performance of microcapsules. The application area and scope of protein-based microcapsules can be further expanded by optimizing the preparation process and studying the microcapsule release mechanism and control strategy.

The application of encapsulation technology in the food Industry: Classifications, recent Advances, and perspectives

Encapsulation technology has been extensively used to enhance the stability, specificity, and bioavailability of essential food ingredients. Additionally, it plays a vital role in improving product quality and reducing production costs. This study presents a comprehensive classification of encapsulation techniques based on the state of different cores (solid, liquid, and gaseous) and offers a detailed description and analysis of these encapsulation methods. Specifically, it introduces the diverse applications of encapsulation technology in food, encompassing areas such as antioxidant, protein activity, physical stability, controlled release, delivery, antibacterial, and probiotics. The potential impact of encapsulation technology is expected to make encapsulation technology a major process and research hotspot in the food industry. Future research directions include applications of encapsulation for enzymes, microencapsulation of biosensors, and novel technologies such as self-assembly. This study provides a valuable theoretical reference for the in-depth research and wide application of encapsulation technology in the food industry.

Structural modification of poppy-pollen protein as a natural antioxidant, emulsifier and carrier in spray-drying of O/W-emulsion: Physicochemical and oxidative stabilization

This study was aimed to investigate the efficiency of poppy-pollen (PP) protein and peptides as carrier for spray-drying encapsulation of grape-seed oil (GSO). The composition of amino acids, functional properties and bioactivity (scavenging of DPPH, ABTS, OH, and nitric-oxide radicals, reducing power, total antioxidant, TBARS levels in O/W-emulsion, and chelation of Fe2+ and Cu2+ ions) of PP-protein were affected by the enzymolysis time. Partial enzymolysis (30 min) led to improved solubility, protein surface activity and increased physical stability of GSO/W emulsion (relative to creaming, aggregation and flocculation) during storage. Also, spray-dried emulsions with this type of carrier (H-30) had the highest production yield (~67 %), solubility (~92 %), flowability, encapsulation efficiency (~96 %), reconstitution ability (least size and EE changes), physical and oxidative stability. The evaluation of the chemical structures (FTIR) indicated the formation of hydrogen bonds between the cis-alkene groups of fatty acids and the hydroxyl groups of the amide A and B regions, as well as the trapping of oil in the carrier matrix. SEM images illustrated the effect of native protein carriers (particles with smooth, dents, and hollow surfaces with surface pores), partially (wrinkled and reservoir-type), and strongly (irregular structures, sticky and amorphous agglomerates) hydrolyzed peptides on the morphology of oily-particles. The results of this research indicate the usability of partially hydrolyzed poppy-pollen protein as a source of natural antioxidant, emulsifier, and carrier in the production, stabilization, and encapsulation of oxidation-sensitive bioactive components and emulsions.

Strategies for improving loading of emulsion-based functional oil powder

Functional oil is type of oil that is beneficial to human health and has nutritional value, however, functional oils are rich in bioactive substances such as polyunsaturated fatty acids which are sensitive to environmental factors and are susceptible to oxidation or decomposition. Construction of emulsion-based oil powder is a promising approach for improving the stability and solubility of functional oils. However, the low effective loading of oil in powder is the main challenge limiting encapsulation technology. This manuscript focuses on reviewing the current research progress of emulsion-based functional oil powder construction and systematically summarizes the processing characteristics of emulsion-based oil powder with high payload and summarizing the strategies to enhance the payload of powder in term of emulsification and drying, respectively. The impact of emulsion formation on oil powder production is discussed from different characteristics of emulsions, including emulsion composition, emulsification methods and emulsion types. In addition, the current status of improving material loading performance by various modifications to the drying technology is discussed, including the addition of drying processing additives, changes in drying parameters and the effect of innovative technological means.

Wall Materials for Encapsulating Bioactive Compounds via Spray-Drying: A Review

Spray-drying is a continuous encapsulation method that effectively preserves, stabilizes, and retards the degradation of bioactive compounds by encapsulating them within a wall material. The resulting capsules exhibit diverse characteristics influenced by factors such as operating conditions (e.g., air temperature and feed rate) and the interactions between the bioactive compounds and the wall material. This review aims to compile recent research (within the past 5 years) on spray-drying for bioactive compound encapsulation, emphasizing the significance of wall materials in spray-drying and their impact on encapsulation yield, efficiency, and capsule morphology.

A review of food preservation based on zein: The perspective from application types of coating and film

The application of zein in food preservation was discussed from a unique perspective of application types, including coating and film. For the study of coating, edibility is considered because the coating adheres to the surface of food directly. For the study of film, plasticizers improve their mechanical properties, while barrier performance and antibacterial performance are achieved by nanoparticles; the incorporation of polyphenols is mainly due to their antibacterial and antioxidant properties; other biopolymers realize the complementarity between zein and biopolymers within films. In the future, the interaction between the edible coating and food matrix needs to be concerned. The mechanism of various exogenous additives and zein in the film should be noticed. Importantly, food safety and the possibility of large-scale application should be followed. Additionally, the intelligent response is one of the key development directions of zein-based film in the future.

Recent Advances in the Microencapsulation of Essential Oils, Lipids, and Compound Lipids through Spray Drying: A Review

In recent decades, the microcapsules of lipids, compound lipids, and essential oils, have found numerous potential practical applications in food, textiles, agricultural products, as well as pharmaceuticals. This article discusses the encapsulation of fat-soluble vitamins, essential oils, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and structured lipids. Consequently, the compiled information establishes the criteria to better select encapsulating agents as well as combinations of encapsulating agents best suited to the types of active ingredient to be encapsulated. This review shows a trend towards applications in food and pharmacology as well as the increase in research related to microencapsulation by the spray drying of vitamins A and E, as well as fish oil, thanks to its contribution of omega 3 and omega 6. There is also an increase in articles in which spray drying is combined with other encapsulation techniques, or modifications to the conventional spray drying system.

Comparison of Commercial Fish Proteins' Chemical and Sensory Properties for Human Consumption

To stop overfishing and meet the protein needs of a growing population, more information is needed on how to use marine by-catches, by-products, and undervalued fish species for human consumption. Turning them into protein powder is a sustainable and marketable way to add value. However, more knowledge of the chemical and sensory properties of commercial fish proteins is needed to identify the challenges in developing fish derivatives. This study aimed to characterize the sensory and chemical properties of commercial fish proteins to compare their suitability for human consumption. Proximate composition, protein, polypeptide and lipid profiles, lipid oxidation, and functional properties were analyzed. The sensory profile was compiled using generic descriptive analysis, and odor-active compounds were identified with gas-chromatography-mass spectrometry-olfactometry (GC-MS/O). Results indicated significant differences in chemical and sensory properties between processing methods but not between fish species. However, the raw material had some influence in the proteins' proximate composition. Bitterness and fishiness were the main perceived off-flavors. All samples, apart from hydrolyzed collagen, had intense flavor and odor. Differences in odor-active compounds supported the sensory evaluation results. The chemical properties revealed that the lipid oxidation, peptide profile, and raw material degradation are likely affecting the sensory properties of commercial fish proteins. Limiting lipid oxidation during processing is crucial for the development of mild-tasting and -smelling products for human consumption.

Flavour encapsulation: A comparative analysis of relevant techniques, physiochemical characterisation, stability, and food applications

Flavour is an important component that impacts the quality and acceptability of new functional foods. However, most flavour substances are low molecular mass volatile compounds, and direct handling and control during processing and storage are made difficult due to susceptibility to evaporation, and poor stability in the presence of air, light, moisture and heat. Encapsulation in the form of micro and nano technology has been used to address this challenge, thereby promoting easier handling during processing and storage. Improved stability is achieved by trapping the active or core flavour substances in matrices that are referred to as wall or carrier materials. The latter serve as physical barriers that protect the flavour substances, and the interactions between carrier materials and flavour substances has been the focus of many studies. Moreover, recent evidence also suggests that enhanced bioavailability of flavour substances and their targeted delivery can be achieved by nanoencapsulation compared to microencapsulation due to smaller particle or droplet sizes. The objective of this paper is to review several relevant aspects of physical-mechanical and physicochemical techniques employed to stabilize flavour substances by encapsulation. A comparative analysis of the physiochemical characterization of encapsulates (particle size, surface morphology and rheology) and the main factors that impact the stability of encapsulated flavour substances will also be presented. Food applications as well as opportunities for future research are also highlighted.

Modification of Whey Proteins by Sonication and Hydrolysis for the Emulsification and Spray Drying Encapsulation of Grape Seed Oil

In this study, whey protein concentrate (WPC) was sonicated or partially hydrolyzed by Alcalase, then examined as an emulsifier and carrier for the emulsification and spray drying of grape seed oil (GSO)-in-water emulsions. The modification treatments increased the free amino acid content and antioxidant activity (against DPPH and ABTS free radicals), as well as, the solubility, emulsifying, and foaming activities of WPC. The modified WPC-stabilized emulsions had smaller, more homogeneous droplets and a higher zeta potential as compared to intact WPC. The corresponding spray-dried powders also showed improved encapsulation efficiency, oxidative stability, reconstitution ability, flowability, solubility, and hygroscopicity. The morphology of particles obtained from the primary WPC (matrix type, irregular with surface pores) and modified WPC (reservoir type, wrinkled with surface indentations), as well as the oxidative stability of the GSO were influenced by the functional characteristics and antioxidant activity of the carriers. Changes in the secondary structures and amide regions of WPC, as well as the embedding of GSO in its matrix, were deduced from FTIR spectra after modifications. Partial enzymolysis had better results than ultrasonication; hence, the WPC hydrolysates are recommended as emulsifiers, carriers, and antioxidants for the delivery and protection of bioactive compounds.

Recent Developments in the Microencapsulation of Fish Oil and Natural Extracts: Procedure, Quality Evaluation and Food Enrichment

Due to the beneficial health effects of omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants and their limited stability in response to environmental and processing factors, there is an increasing interest in microencapsulating them to improve their stability. However, despite recent developments in the field, no specific review focusing on these topics has been published in the last few years. This work aimed to review the most recent developments in the microencapsulation of fish oil and natural antioxidant compounds. The impact of the wall material and the procedures on the quality of the microencapsulates were preferably evaluated, while their addition to foods has only been studied in a few works. The homogenization technique, the wall-material ratio and the microencapsulation technique were also extensively studied. Microcapsules were mainly analyzed for size, microencapsulation efficiency, morphology and moisture, while in vitro digestion, flowing properties, yield percentage and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used more sparingly. Findings highlighted the importance of optimizing the most influential variables of the microencapsulation procedure. Further studies should focus on extending the range of analytical techniques upon which the optimization of microcapsules is based and on addressing the consequences of the addition of microcapsules to food products.

Spray drying encapsulation of essential oils; process efficiency, formulation strategies, and applications

Essential oils (EOs) have many beneficial qualities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral, and antifungal activities, along with good aroma, which have played a significant role in pharmaceutical, textile, and food industries. However, their high volatility and sensibility to external factors, as well as susceptibility to deterioration caused by environmental and storage conditions, or even common processing, and consequently limited water solubility, makes it difficult to incorporate them into aqueous food matrices and limits their industrial application. Spray-drying encapsulation has been proposed as a solution and a challenging research field to retard oil oxidation, extend EO's shelf life, improve their physicochemical stability, achieve controlled release, suggest novel uses, and therefore boost their added value. The objective of this review is to discuss various used wall materials, infeed emulsion properties, the main formulation and process variables affecting the physicochemical properties and release characteristics of the EOs-loaded particles obtained by spray-drying, the stability of EOs during storage, and the applications of encapsulated EOs powders in foods and nutrition, pharmaceuticals, and textile industries. The current review also summarizes recent advances in spray drying approaches for improving encapsulation efficiency, flavor retention, controlled release, and applicability of encapsulated EOs, thereby expanding their use and functionalities.

Food Fortification Using Spray-Dried Emulsions of Fish Oil Produced with Maltodextrin, Plant and Whey Proteins-Effect on Sensory Perception, Volatiles and Storage Stability

Fortification of foods with fish oil rich in n–3 fatty acids improves the nutritional value, but creates challenges with flavor and oxidative stability, especially during storage. Pea, soy, and sunflower proteins were used in combination with whey protein or maltodextrin to encapsulate fish oil by spray-drying. The use of whey protein compared with maltodextrin as wall material improved oxidative stability of spray-dried emulsions, although the use of whey protein increased the number of observed cracks in outer shell of the particles. Non- and encapsulated oil were used in cookies and chocolates to examine flavor characteristics by generic descriptive analysis and volatile products by solid-phase microextraction with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A long-term storage test at room temperature was conducted to evaluate the oxidative stability of the food models. Fortification changed the texture, odor, and flavor of the food models with fishy flavor being the most impactful attribute. For both food models, use of pea protein with maltodextrin resembled attributes of control the best. Fortification and encapsulation material also affected volatile profiles of food models. Both non-encapsulated oil and whey protein formulations performed well in regard to oxidative stability for both food models. Generally, the cookie model showed more potential for fortification than the chocolate one.