1
|
Schami A, Islam MN, Wall M, Hicks A, Meredith R, Kreiswirth B, Mathema B, Belisle JT, Torrelles JB. Drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains have altered cell envelope hydrophobicity that influences infection outcomes in human macrophages. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.10.588986. [PMID: 38645029 PMCID: PMC11030328 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.10.588986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb), the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), is considered one of the top infectious killers in the world. In recent decades, drug resistant (DR) strains of M.tb have emerged that make TB even more difficult to treat and pose a threat to public health. M.tb has a complex cell envelope that provides protection to the bacterium from chemotherapeutic agents. Although M.tb cell envelope lipids have been studied for decades, very little is known about how their levels change in relation to drug resistance. In this study, we examined changes in the cell envelope lipids [namely, phthiocerol dimycocerosates (PDIMs)], glycolipids [phosphatidyl-myo-inositol mannosides (PIMs)], and the PIM associated lipoglycans [lipomannan (LM); mannose-capped lipoarabinomannan (ManLAM)] of 11 M.tb strains that range from drug susceptible (DS) to multi-drug resistant (MDR) to pre-extensively drug resistant (pre-XDR). We show that there was an increase in the PDIMs:PIMs ratio as drug resistance increases, and provide evidence of PDIM species only present in the DR-M.tb strains studied. Overall, the LM and ManLAM cell envelope levels did not differ between DS- and DR-M.tb strains, but ManLAM surface exposure proportionally increased with drug resistance. Evaluation of host-pathogen interactions revealed that DR-M.tb strains have decreased association with human macrophages compared to DS strains. The pre-XDR M.tb strain with the largest PDIMs:PIMs ratio had decreased uptake, but increased intracellular growth rate at early time points post-infection when compared to the DS-M.tb strain H37Rv. These findings suggest that PDIMs may play an important role in drug resistance and that this observed increase in hydrophobic cell envelope lipids on the DR-M.tb strains studied may influence M.tb-host interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa Schami
- Population Health and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Integrated Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - M. Nurul Islam
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Matthew Wall
- Population Health and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Integrated Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Amberlee Hicks
- Population Health and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Reagan Meredith
- Population Health and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Barry Kreiswirth
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ, USA
| | - Barun Mathema
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, New York, USA
| | - John T. Belisle
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Jordi B. Torrelles
- Population Health and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
- International Center for the Advancement of Research & Education (I•CARE), Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Canales CSC, Pavan AR, Dos Santos JL, Pavan FR. In silico drug design strategies for discovering novel tuberculosis therapeutics. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2024; 19:471-491. [PMID: 38374606 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2024.2319042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Tuberculosis remains a significant concern in global public health due to its intricate biology and propensity for developing antibiotic resistance. Discovering new drugs is a protracted and expensive endeavor, often spanning over a decade and incurring costs in the billions. However, computer-aided drug design (CADD) has surfaced as a nimbler and more cost-effective alternative. CADD tools enable us to decipher the interactions between therapeutic targets and novel drugs, making them invaluable in the quest for new tuberculosis treatments. AREAS COVERED In this review, the authors explore recent advancements in tuberculosis drug discovery enabled by in silico tools. The main objectives of this review article are to highlight emerging drug candidates identified through in silico methods and to provide an update on the therapeutic targets associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. EXPERT OPINION These in silico methods have not only streamlined the drug discovery process but also opened up new horizons for finding novel drug candidates and repositioning existing ones. The continued advancements in these fields hold great promise for more efficient, ethical, and successful drug development in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christian S Carnero Canales
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
- School of Pharmacy, biochemistry and biotechnology, Santa Maria Catholic University, Arequipa, Perú
| | - Aline Renata Pavan
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
| | | | - Fernando Rogério Pavan
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Farnia P, Besharati S, Farina P, Ayoubi S, Marjani M, Ghanavi J, Tabarsi P, Velayati AA. The Role of Efflux Pumps transporter in Multi-drug Resistant Tuberculosis: Mycobacterial memberane protein(MmpL5). Int J Mycobacteriol 2024; 13:7-14. [PMID: 38771273 DOI: 10.4103/ijmy.ijmy_37_24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The overexpression of efflux pumps (Eps) was reported to contribute to multidrug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Increases in Eps that expel structurally unrelated drugs contribute to reduced susceptibility by decreasing the intracellular concentration of antibiotics. In the present study, an association of mycobacterial membrane protein (MmpS5-MmpL5) Ep and its gene regulator (Rv0678) was investigated in MDR-tuberculosis isolates. METHODS MTB strains were isolated from patients at two different intervals, i.e., once when they had persistent symptoms despite 3-15 ≥ months of treatment and once when they had started new combination therapy ≥2-3 months. Sputum specimens were subjected to Xpert MTB/rifampicin test and then further susceptibility testing using proportional method and multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were performed on them. The isolates were characterized using both 16S-23S RNA and hsp65 genes spacer (PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism). Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) was investigated on two isolates from culture-positive specimen per patient. The protein structure was simulated using the SWISS-MODEL. The input format used for this web server was FASTA (amino acid sequence). Protein structure was also analysis using Ramachandran plot. RESULTS WGS documented deletion, insertion, and substitution in transmembrane transport protein MmpL5 (Rv0676) of Eps. Majority of the studied isolates (n = 12; 92.3%) showed a unique deletion mutation at three positions: (a) from amino acid number 771 (isoleucine) to 776 (valine), (b) from amino acid number 785 (valine) to 793 (histidine), and (c) from amino acid number 798 (leucine) to 806 (glycine)." One isolate (7.6%) had no deletion mutation. In all isolates (n = 13; 100%), a large insertion mutation consisting of 94 amino acid was observed "from amino acid number 846 (isoleucine) to amino acid number 939 (leucine)". Thirty-eight substitutions in Rv0676 were detected, of which 92.3% were identical in the studied isolates. WGS of mycobacterial membrane proteins (MmpS5; Rv0677) and its gene regulator (Rv0678) documented no deletion, insertion, and substitution. No differences were observed between MmpS5-MmpL5 and its gene regulator in isolates that were collected at different intervals. CONCLUSIONS Significant genetic mutation like insertion, deletion, and substitution within transmembrane transport protein MmpL5 (Rv0676) can change the functional balance of Eps and cause a reduction in drug susceptibility. This is the first report documenting a unique amino acid mutation (insertion and deletion ≥4-94) in Rv0676 among drug-resistant MTB. We suggest the changes in Mmpl5 (Rv0676) might occurred due to in-vivo sub-therapeutic drug stress within the host cell. Changes in MmpL5 are stable and detected through subsequent culture-positive specimens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Parissa Farnia
- Mycobacteriology Research Center, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeid Besharati
- Mycobacteriology Research Center, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Poopak Farina
- Mycobacteriology Research Center, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saman Ayoubi
- Mycobacteriology Research Center, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Majid Marjani
- Clinical Tuberculosis and Epidemiology Research Centre, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jalaledin Ghanavi
- Mycobacteriology Research Center, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Payam Tabarsi
- Clinical Tuberculosis and Epidemiology Research Centre, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Akbar Velayati
- Mycobacteriology Research Center, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Rakshit G, Biswas A, Jayaprakash V. In Silico Drug Repurposing Studies for the Discovery of Novel Salicyl-AMP Ligase (MbtA)Inhibitors. Pathogens 2023; 12:1433. [PMID: 38133316 PMCID: PMC10745912 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12121433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) continues to pose a global health challenge, exacerbated by the rise of drug-resistant strains. The development of new TB therapies is an arduous and time-consuming process. To expedite the discovery of effective treatments, computational structure-based drug repurposing has emerged as a promising strategy. From this perspective, conditionally essential targets present a valuable opportunity, and the mycobactin biosynthesis pathway stands out as a prime example highlighting the intricate response of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) to changes in iron availability. This study focuses on the repurposing and revival of FDA-approved drugs (library) as potential inhibitors of MbtA, a crucial enzyme in mycobactin biosynthesis in Mtb conserved among all species of mycobacteria. The literature suggests this pathway to be associated with drug efflux pumps, which potentially contribute to drug resistance. This makes it a potential target for antitubercular drug discovery. Herein, we utilized cheminformatics and structure-based drug repurposing approaches, viz., molecular docking, dynamics, and PCA analysis, to decode the intermolecular interactions and binding affinity of the FDA-reported molecules against MbtA. Virtual screening revealed ten molecules with significant binding affinities and interactions with MbtA. These drugs, originally designed for different therapeutic indications (four antiviral, three anticancer, one CYP450 inhibitor, one ACE inhibitor, and one leukotriene antagonist), were repurposed as potential MbtA inhibitors. Furthermore, our study explores the binding modes and interactions between these drugs and MbtA, shedding light on the structural basis of their inhibitory potential. Principal component analysis highlighted significant motions in MbtA-bound ligands, emphasizing the stability of the top protein-ligand complexes (PLCs). This computational approach provides a swift and cost-effective method for identifying new MbtA inhibitors, which can subsequently undergo validation through experimental assays. This streamlined process is facilitated by the fact that these compounds are already FDA-approved and have established safety and efficacy profiles. This study has the potential to lay the groundwork for addressing the urgent global health challenge at hand, specifically in the context of combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and tuberculosis (TB).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Venkatesan Jayaprakash
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215, Jharkhand, India; (G.R.); (A.B.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Schami A, Islam MN, Belisle JT, Torrelles JB. Drug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: cell envelope profiles and interactions with the host. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1274175. [PMID: 38029252 PMCID: PMC10664572 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1274175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In the past few decades, drug-resistant (DR) strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb), the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), have become increasingly prevalent and pose a threat to worldwide public health. These strains range from multi (MDR) to extensively (XDR) drug-resistant, making them very difficult to treat. Further, the current and future impact of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the development of DR-TB is still unknown. Although exhaustive studies have been conducted depicting the uniqueness of the M.tb cell envelope, little is known about how its composition changes in relation to drug resistance acquisition. This knowledge is critical to understanding the capacity of DR-M.tb strains to resist anti-TB drugs, and to inform us on the future design of anti-TB drugs to combat these difficult-to-treat strains. In this review, we discuss the complexities of the M.tb cell envelope along with recent studies investigating how M.tb structurally and biochemically changes in relation to drug resistance. Further, we will describe what is currently known about the influence of M.tb drug resistance on infection outcomes, focusing on its impact on fitness, persister-bacteria, and subclinical TB.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa Schami
- Population Health Program, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
- Integrated Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - M. Nurul Islam
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - John T. Belisle
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Jordi B. Torrelles
- Population Health Program, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
- International Center for the Advancement of Research & Education, International Center for the Advancement of Research & Education, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sun Q, Zou Y, Feng Q, Gong Z, Song M, Li M, Chen Z. The acetylation of pknH is linked to the ethambutol resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Arch Microbiol 2023; 205:337. [PMID: 37740776 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-023-03676-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/25/2023]
Abstract
EmbR, a substrate of pknH in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), is related to the ethambutol (EMB) resistance. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between acetylation of pknH and the resistance of EMB mono-resistant Mtb. The EMB mono-resistant Mtb strain was constructed based on the MYCOTB and the Löwenstein-Jensen (LJ) proportion method. The growth kinetics was used to evaluate the bacterial growth. Escherichia coli, as the host of Mtb, was used for cloning and protein purification. Moreover, the immunoprecipitation was performed along with western blot to evaluate the EmbR phosphorylation and pknH acetylation. Each independent experiment was conducted in triplicate. EMB mono-resistant Mtb strain was successfully constructed according to the results of MIC values of 14 anti-Mtb drugs. The EMB resistant (ER) Mtb strain showed faster growth than the wild-type (WT) Mtb strain, and the difference was statistically significant. Moreover, pknH robustly phosphorylates EmbR, and pknH and acetylated pknH protein levels were downregulated in ER strain. The acetylation of pknH may reduce the phosphorylation of EmbR to inhibit the growth of Mtb strain. Enhancing the acetylation of pknH may be a promising method to inhibit the EMB resistance against Mtb.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qing Sun
- Department of Medicine, Hunan Traditional Chinese Medical College, No.136, Lusong Road, Lusong District, Zhuzhou, 412000, Hunan Province, China.
| | - Yan Zou
- Department of Medicine, Hunan Traditional Chinese Medical College, No.136, Lusong Road, Lusong District, Zhuzhou, 412000, Hunan Province, China
| | - Qian Feng
- Department of Medicine, Hunan Traditional Chinese Medical College, No.136, Lusong Road, Lusong District, Zhuzhou, 412000, Hunan Province, China
| | - Zongyue Gong
- Department of Medicine, Hunan Traditional Chinese Medical College, No.136, Lusong Road, Lusong District, Zhuzhou, 412000, Hunan Province, China
| | - Manlin Song
- Hunan Traditional Chinese Medical College, Zhuzhou, China
| | - Machao Li
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Diseases Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Zhuang Chen
- Department of Medicine, Hunan Traditional Chinese Medical College, No.136, Lusong Road, Lusong District, Zhuzhou, 412000, Hunan Province, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Capela R, Félix R, Clariano M, Nunes D, Perry MDJ, Lopes F. Target Identification in Anti-Tuberculosis Drug Discovery. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10482. [PMID: 37445660 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is the etiological agent of tuberculosis (TB), a disease that, although preventable and curable, remains a global epidemic due to the emergence of resistance and a latent form responsible for a long period of treatment. Drug discovery in TB is a challenging task due to the heterogeneity of the disease, the emergence of resistance, and uncomplete knowledge of the pathophysiology of the disease. The limited permeability of the cell wall and the presence of multiple efflux pumps remain a major barrier to achieve effective intracellular drug accumulation. While the complete genome sequence of Mtb has been determined and several potential protein targets have been validated, the lack of adequate models for in vitro and in vivo studies is a limiting factor in TB drug discovery programs. In current therapeutic regimens, less than 0.5% of bacterial proteins are targeted during the biosynthesis of the cell wall and the energetic metabolism of two of the most important processes exploited for TB chemotherapeutics. This review provides an overview on the current challenges in TB drug discovery and emerging Mtb druggable proteins, and explains how chemical probes for protein profiling enabled the identification of new targets and biomarkers, paving the way to disruptive therapeutic regimens and diagnostic tools.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rita Capela
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rita Félix
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Marta Clariano
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Diogo Nunes
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria de Jesus Perry
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Francisca Lopes
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
van Staden D, Haynes RK, Viljoen JM. Adapting Clofazimine for Treatment of Cutaneous Tuberculosis by Using Self-Double-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11060806. [PMID: 35740212 PMCID: PMC9219976 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11060806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Although chemotherapeutic treatment regimens are currently available, and considerable effort has been lavished on the development of new drugs for the treatment of tuberculosis (TB), the disease remains deeply intractable and widespread. This is due not only to the nature of the life cycle and extraordinarily disseminated habitat of the causative pathogen, principally Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), in humans and the multi-drug resistance of Mtb to current drugs, but especially also to the difficulty of enabling universal treatment of individuals, immunocompromised or otherwise, in widely differing socio-economic environments. For the purpose of globally eliminating TB by 2035, the World Health Organization (WHO) introduced the "End-TB" initiative by employing interventions focusing on high impact, integrated and patient-centered approaches, such as individualized therapy. However, the extraordinary shortfall in stipulated aims, for example in actual treatment and in TB preventative treatments during the period 2018-2022, latterly and greatly exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, means that even greater pressure is now placed on enhancing our scientific understanding of the disease, repurposing or repositioning old drugs and developing new drugs as well as evolving innovative treatment methods. In the specific context of multidrug resistant Mtb, it is furthermore noted that the incidence of extra-pulmonary TB (EPTB) has significantly increased. This review focusses on the potential of utilizing self-double-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SDEDDSs) as topical drug delivery systems for the dermal route of administration to aid in treatment of cutaneous TB (CTB) and other mycobacterial infections as a prelude to evaluating related systems for more effective treatment of CTB and other mycobacterial infections at large. As a starting point, we consider here the possibility of adapting the highly lipophilic riminophenazine clofazimine, with its potential for treatment of multi-drug resistant TB, for this purpose. Additionally, recently reported synergism achieved by adding clofazimine to first-line TB regimens signifies the need to consider clofazimine. Thus, the biological effects and pharmacology of clofazimine are reviewed. The potential of plant-based oils acting as emulsifiers, skin penetration enhancers as well as these materials behaving as anti-microbial components for transporting the incorporated drug are also discussed.
Collapse
|
9
|
Arega AM, Dhal AK, Nayak S, Mahapatra RK. In silico and in vitro study of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv uncharacterized protein (RipD): an insight on tuberculosis therapeutics. J Mol Model 2022; 28:171. [PMID: 35624324 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-022-05148-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is responsible for the highest global health problem, with the deaths of millions of people. With prevalence of multiple drug resistance (MDR) strains and extended therapeutic times, it is important to discover small molecule inhibitors against novel hypothetical proteins of the pathogen. In this study, a virtual screening protocol was carried out against MtbH37Rv hypothetical protein RipD (Rv1566c) for the identification of potential small molecule inhibitors. The 3D model of the protein structure binding site was used for virtual screening (VS) of inhibitors from the Pathogen Box, followed by its validation through a molecular docking study. The stability of the protein-ligand complex was assessed using a 150 ns molecular dynamics simulation. MM-PBSA and MM-GBSA are the two approaches that were used to perform the trajectory analysis and determine the binding free energies, respectively. The ligand binding was observed to be stable across the entire time frame with an approximate binding free energy of -22.9916 kcal/mol. The drug-likeness of the inhibitors along with a potential anti-tuberculosis compound was validated by ADMET prediction software. Furthermore, a CFU inhibition assay was used to validate the best hit compound's in vitro inhibitory efficacy against a non-pathogenic Mycobacterium smegmatis MC2155 under low nutrient culture conditions. The study reported that the compound proposed in our study (Pathogen Box ID: MMV687700) will be useful for the identification of potential inhibitors against Mtb in future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aregitu Mekuriaw Arega
- School of Biotechnology, KIIT Deemed to Be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.,National Veterinary Institute, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
| | - Ajit Kumar Dhal
- School of Biotechnology, KIIT Deemed to Be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
| | - Sasmita Nayak
- School of Biotechnology, KIIT Deemed to Be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abekura F, Park J, Lim H, Kim H, Choi H, Lee M, Kim C. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
glycolipoprotein LprG inhibits inflammation through NF‐κB signaling of ERK1/2 and JNK in LPS‐induced murine macrophage cells. J Cell Biochem 2022; 123:772-781. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.30220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fukushi Abekura
- Department of Biological Sciences SungKyunKwan University Suwon Kyunggi‐Do Republic of Korea
| | - Junyoung Park
- Department of Biological Sciences SungKyunKwan University Suwon Kyunggi‐Do Republic of Korea
| | - Hakseong Lim
- Department of Biological Sciences SungKyunKwan University Suwon Kyunggi‐Do Republic of Korea
| | - Hee‐Do Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences SungKyunKwan University Suwon Kyunggi‐Do Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunju Choi
- Department of Biological Sciences SungKyunKwan University Suwon Kyunggi‐Do Republic of Korea
| | - Moon‐Jo Lee
- Department of Herb Science Dong‐Eui Institute of Technology Busan Republic of Korea
| | - Cheorl‐Ho Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences SungKyunKwan University Suwon Kyunggi‐Do Republic of Korea
- Samsung Advanced Institute for Health Sciences & Technology (SAIHST), Samsung Medical Center Seoul South Korea
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Liu X, Lin KH, Li YH, Jiang JN, Zhong ZD, Xiong YB, Zhou J, Xiang L. Impacts of Medical Security Level on Treatment Outcomes of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis: Evidence from Wuhan City, China. Patient Prefer Adherence 2022; 16:3341-3355. [PMID: 36573226 PMCID: PMC9789709 DOI: 10.2147/ppa.s389231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) is an increasingly serious global issue. DR-TB has a lower success rate and more severe interruption of treatment than ordinary tuberculosis. Incomplete treatment not only reduces recovery rate in DR-TB patients but also increases the spread of DR-TB. Optimizing medical security policies for DR-TB can reduce the economic burden of patients and can thereby improve treatment success rate. METHODS Patients with DR-TB who were registered in Wuhan Center for Tuberculosis Control and Prevention from January 2016 to December 2019 were selected as research subjects. General descriptive statistical analysis methods were used in analyzing patients' treatment outcomes and medical security compensation rate. The binary logistic regression was used in analyzing the impacts of medical security level on treatment outcomes of DR-TB. RESULTS A total of 409 DR-TB patients were included in the study, and the refusal rate was 12.47%. The treatment success rate was only 37.09% for patients who started treatment and had treatment outcomes. The total out-of-pocket expenses (OOPs) per capita for DR-TB patients were 13,005.61 Chinese yuan. The outpatient effective compensation ratio (ECR) of DR-TB patients was only 51.04%. The outpatient ECR of DR-TB with subsidies of public health projects (SPHPs) were nearly 80% higher than those without SPHP. high outpatient ECR helped optimize treatment outcomes (P < 0.001, OR = 1.038). The inpatient ECR had no effect on patients' treatment outcomes (P = 0.158, OR = 0.986). CONCLUSION Many DR-TB patients did not receive complete treatment. The key breakthrough point in improving DR-TB treatment outcomes is to optimize the outpatient medical insurance compensation policy. Including the costs of DR-TB in expenses for severe diseases in outpatient care is recommended, and financial investment should be appropriately increased to ensure the high coverage ratio of subsidies for public health projects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Liu
- School of Medicine and Health Management, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Kun-He Lin
- School of Medicine and Health Management, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yue-Hua Li
- Wuhan Center for Tuberculosis Control and Prevention, Wuhan Pulmonary Hospital, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jun-Nan Jiang
- School of Public Administration, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zheng-Dong Zhong
- School of Medicine and Health Management, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ying-Bei Xiong
- School of Medicine and Health Management, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jin Zhou
- School of Medicine and Health Management, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li Xiang
- School of Medicine and Health Management, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
- HUST Base of National Institute of Healthcare Security, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Li Xiang, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China, Email
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Verma H, Choudhary S, Kumar M, Silakari O. In silico guided design of non-covalent inhibitors of DprE1: synthesis and biological evaluation. SAR AND QSAR IN ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 32:333-352. [PMID: 33784906 DOI: 10.1080/1062936x.2021.1900390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
DprE1 is a potential target of resistant tuberculosis (TB), especially multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) TB. 2-benzoxazolinone is a closely related bioisostere of some scaffolds such as benzoxazoles, benzimidazole, benzothiazolinone, and benzothiazoles that have been previously explored against DprE1. Thus, a ligand-based quantitative pharmacophore model (AHRR.8) of DprE1 was developed and this pharmacophore model was utilized in activity profiling of some 2-benzoxazolinones from an in-house database using virtual screening. Obtained hits were subject to molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD), and MM/GBSA calculations, which resulted in benzoyl-substituted derivatives of 2-benzoxazolinone showing strong interactions with the key amino acid residues in the active site of DprE1. Based on in silico results, the top five hits were duly synthesized and evaluated against the XDR-TB strain. This study is an initial effort to explore 2-benzoxazolinones against XDR-TB, which can be submitted further to lead optimization for refining the results.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Verma
- Molecular Modelling Lab (MML), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, Patiala, India
| | - S Choudhary
- Molecular Modelling Lab (MML), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, Patiala, India
| | - M Kumar
- Molecular Modelling Lab (MML), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, Patiala, India
| | - O Silakari
- Molecular Modelling Lab (MML), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, Patiala, India
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
The frequency of point mutations associated with resistance to isoniazid and rifampin among clinical isolates of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the west of Iran. GENE REPORTS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.genrep.2020.100981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
14
|
Ayoubi S, Farnia P, Farnia P, Aghajani J, Ghanavi J, Velayati A. Prevalence of non-tuberculosis mycobacteria among samples deposited from the National Tuberculous Reference Laboratory of Iran (2011-2018). ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2021. [DOI: 10.4103/1995-7645.329007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
|
15
|
Dalberto PF, de Souza EV, Abbadi BL, Neves CE, Rambo RS, Ramos AS, Macchi FS, Machado P, Bizarro CV, Basso LA. Handling the Hurdles on the Way to Anti-tuberculosis Drug Development. Front Chem 2020; 8:586294. [PMID: 33330374 PMCID: PMC7710551 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.586294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The global epidemic of tuberculosis (TB) imposes a sustained epidemiologic vigilance and investments in research by governments. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the main causative agent of TB in human beings, is a very successful pathogen, being the main cause of death in the population among infectious agents. In 2018, ~10 million individuals were contaminated with this bacillus and became ill with TB, and about 1.2 million succumbed to the disease. Most of the success of the M. tuberculosis to linger in the population comes from its ability to persist in an asymptomatic latent state into the host and, in fact, the majority of the individuals are unaware of being contaminated. Even though TB is a treatable disease and is curable in most cases, the treatment is lengthy and laborious. In addition, the rise of resistance to first-line anti-TB drugs elicits a response from TB research groups to discover new chemical entities, preferably with novel mechanisms of action. The pathway to find a new TB drug, however, is arduous and has many barriers that are difficult to overcome. Fortunately, several approaches are available today to be pursued by scientists interested in anti-TB drug development, which goes from massively testing chemical compounds against mycobacteria, to discovering new molecular targets by genetic manipulation. This review presents some difficulties found along the TB drug development process and illustrates different approaches that might be used to try to identify new molecules or targets that are able to impair M. tuberculosis survival.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Luiz A. Basso
- Centro de Pesquisas em Biologia Molecular e Funcional (CPBMF) and Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Tuberculose (INCT-TB), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Enhanced prediction of anti-tubercular peptides from sequence information using divergence measure-based intuitionistic fuzzy-rough feature selection. Soft comput 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00500-020-05363-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
17
|
Dorababu A. Pharmacology Profile of Recently Developed Multi‐Functional Azoles; SAR‐Based Predictive Structural Modification. ChemistrySelect 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202000294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Atukuri Dorababu
- Department of Studies in ChemistrySRMPP Govt. First Grade College Huvinahadagali 583219, Karnataka India
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Bitar I, Medvecky M, Amlerova J, Papagiannitsis CC, Hrabak J. Frequency of mutations associated with resistance to first- and second-line drugs in multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. J Glob Antimicrob Resist 2020; 22:275-282. [PMID: 32247078 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgar.2020.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Tuberculosis is considered one of the most fatal diseases worldwide, with an estimation of 10.1 million cases. In this study, whole-genome sequencing was used to determine the genomic characterisation of 40 Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from patients with different nationalities hospitalised in the Czech Republic. MATERIALS AND METHODS Susceptibility testing for first-line drugs was performed. DNA was sequenced using the Illumina MiSeq platform. Spoligotype single-nucleotide polymorphisms and mutations in antibiotic-resistant genes were detected, and phylogenetic analysis was performed. RESULTS Samples showing phenotypic resistance to at least one drug were 12 to streptomycin, 11 to isoniazid, 7 to rifampicin, 6 to ethambutol and 5 to pyrazinamide. Phenotypic and genotypic profiles did not match in all cases, suggesting the presence of a novel mutation in some cases and a low expression of resistant genes in others. The presented phylogeny enables the correct assignation of M. tuberculosis lineages and sublineages. Our results suggest that the most dominant lineage in our samples was lineage 4 (33/40). CONCLUSION To our knowledge, this is the first study using this approach to be done in the Czech Republic. Lineage 4 was the predominant lineage identified among our samples. Nevertheless, the dominance of Lineage 4 along with other lineages suggests that infections can originate from different sources.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim Bitar
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Plzen, Czech Republic; Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Plzen, Czech Republic.
| | - Matej Medvecky
- Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Plzen, Czech Republic; CEITEC VFU, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Amlerova
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Plzen, Czech Republic; Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Plzen, Czech Republic
| | - Costas C Papagiannitsis
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Plzen, Czech Republic; Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Plzen, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Hrabak
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Plzen, Czech Republic; Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Plzen, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
4-Substituted picolinohydrazonamides as a new class of potential antitubercular agents. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 190:112106. [PMID: 32061963 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The series of new 4-substituted picolinohydrazonamides were synthesized (6-25) and evaluated for tuberculostatic activity. Compounds having a hydrophilic cyclic amine such as morpholine and pyrrolidine at the end of the thiosemicarbazide chain, exhibited the highest antimycobacterial activity. The antimycobacterial activity of compounds 6, 11, and 15 (MIC 0.4-0.8 μg/mL) was higher than that of reference drugs. Moreover, derivative 15 exhibited lower activity against other tested microorganism such as bacteria gram-positive, gram-negative or fungi. Thus, this compound is characterized by the selectivity of antimicrobial activity. Antiproliferative study conducted against human dermal fibroblasts (HDF) and mouse melanoma cell line (B16-F10) revealed low cytotoxicity of compound 15. Conducted research allowed to identify compound 15 as leading for further research.
Collapse
|
20
|
Garcia-Vilanova A, Chan J, Torrelles JB. Underestimated Manipulative Roles of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Cell Envelope Glycolipids During Infection. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2909. [PMID: 31921168 PMCID: PMC6930167 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The Mycobacterium tuberculosis cell envelope has been evolving over time to make the bacterium transmissible and adaptable to the human host. In this context, the M. tuberculosis cell envelope contains a peripheral barrier full of lipids, some of them unique, which confer M. tuberculosis with a unique shield against the different host environments that the bacterium will encounter at the different stages of infection. This lipid barrier is mainly composed of glycolipids that can be characterized by three different subsets: trehalose-containing, mannose-containing, and 6-deoxy-pyranose-containing glycolipids. In this review, we explore the roles of these cell envelope glycolipids in M. tuberculosis virulence and pathogenesis, drug resistance, and further, how these glycolipids may dictate the M. tuberculosis cell envelope evolution from ancient to modern strains. Finally, we address how these M. tuberculosis cell envelope glycolipids are impacted by the host lung alveolar environment, their role in vaccination and masking host immunity, and subsequently the impact of these glycolipids in shaping how M. tuberculosis interacts with host cells, manipulating their immune response to favor the establishment of an infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreu Garcia-Vilanova
- Population Health Program, TB Group, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - John Chan
- Department of Medicine (Infectious Diseases), Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Jordi B Torrelles
- Population Health Program, TB Group, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Marvadi SK, Krishna VS, Sriram D, Kantevari S. Synthesis and evaluation of novel substituted 1,2,3-triazolyldihydroquinolines as promising antitubercular agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2019; 29:529-533. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2019.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
22
|
Usmani SS, Bhalla S, Raghava GPS. Prediction of Antitubercular Peptides From Sequence Information Using Ensemble Classifier and Hybrid Features. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:954. [PMID: 30210341 PMCID: PMC6121089 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis is one of the leading cause of death worldwide, particularly due to evolution of drug resistant strains. Antitubercular peptides may provide an alternate approach to combat antibiotic tolerance. Sequence analysis reveals that certain residues (e.g., Lysine, Arginine, Leucine, Tryptophan) are more prevalent in antitubercular peptides. This study describes the models developed for predicting antitubercular peptides by using sequence features of the peptides. We have developed support vector machine based models using different sequence features like amino acid composition, binary profile of terminus residues, dipeptide composition. Our ensemble classifiers that combines models based on amino acid composition and N5C5 binary pattern, achieves highest Acc of 73.20% with 0.80 AUROC on our main dataset. Similarly, the ensemble classifier achieved maximum Acc 75.62% with 0.83 AUROC on secondary dataset. Beside this, hybrid model achieves Acc of 75.87 and 78.54% with 0.83 and 0.86 AUROC on main and secondary dataset, respectively. In order to facilitate scientific community in designing of antitubercular peptides, we implement above models in a user friendly webserver (http://webs.iiitd.edu.in/raghava/antitbpred/).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Salman Sadullah Usmani
- Center for Computational Biology, Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, New Delhi, India.,Bioinformatics Centre, CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh, India
| | - Sherry Bhalla
- Center for Computational Biology, Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, New Delhi, India
| | - Gajendra P S Raghava
- Center for Computational Biology, Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, New Delhi, India.,Bioinformatics Centre, CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh, India
| |
Collapse
|