Chemoprevention of chemical-induced skin cancer by Panax ginseng root extract

Orbea variegata (L.) Haw in skin carcinogenesis: insights from an in vivo male Swiss mouse model study

Skin cancer is the most widespread type of malignant tumor representing a major public health concern. Considering the numerous side effects associated with conventional treatments, phytotherapy may be regarded as a viable medicinal alternative. This study aimed to investigate the therapeutic potential of Orbea variegata (L.) Haw, an ornamental plant, in treating skin cancer using an animal model induced by a combination of ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and sulfuric acid treatment. The hydroethanolic extract of Orbea variegata underwent phytochemical characterization, identifying the presence of reducing sugars, coumarins, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and saponins through qualitative screening. Quantitative analysis demonstrated significant amounts of phenolic compounds (29.435 ± 0.571 mg GAE/g of dry extract), flavonoids (6.711 ± 0.272 mg QE/g of dry extract), and tannins (274.037 ± 11.3 mg CE/g of dry extract). The administration the hydroethanolic extract in two concentrations (1 or 2 g/kg) to male Swiss mice exhibited no marked adverse effects, as evidenced by serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) enzyme activity levels. In addition, the extract significantly reduced skin hyperplasia and inflammation induced by UV/sulfuric acid treatment as noted in tissue analyses and decreased protein expression of nuclear proliferation marker (Ki-67). This improvement was associated with a marked decrease in oxidative stress, as indicated by diminished lipid peroxidation levels, and restoration of the activity of endogenous antioxidant enzyme catalase (CAT) to control levels. Our findings demonstrated the potential of Orbea variegata hydroethanolic extract to be considered as a treatment for skin cancer, exhibiting its apparent safety and efficacy in reducing inflammation and carcinogenesis in a UV/sulfuric acid-induced Swiss mouse model, attributed to its phytochemical content and associated antioxidant activities.

Expression of Multicopy Tandem Recombinant Ginseng Hexapeptide in Bacillus subtilis and the Evaluation of Antiaging Activity

Ginseng oligopeptides are naturally occurring small-molecule peptides extracted from ginseng that exhibit positive effects on health and longevity. However, the current industrial production of ginseng oligopeptides primarily relies on plant extraction and chemical synthesis. In this study, we proposed a novel genetic engineering approach to produce active ginseng peptides through multicopy tandem insertion (5 and 15 times). The recombinant ginseng peptides were successfully produced from engineered Bacillus subtilis with an increasing yield from 356.55 to 2900 mg/L as the repeats multiple. Additionally, an oxidative stress-induced aging model caused by H2O2 was established to evaluate whether the recombinant ginseng peptides, without enzymatic hydrolysis into individual peptides, also have positive effects on antiaging. The results demonstrated that all two kinds of recombinant ginseng peptides could also delay cellular aging through various mechanisms, such as inhibiting cell cycle arrest, suppressing the expression of pro-inflammatory factors, and enhancing cellular antioxidant capacity.

Ginsenoside Rg3 endows liposomes with prolonged blood circulation and reduced accelerated blood clearance

PEGylated cholesterol-containing liposomes (Chol-PEG-lipo) have been widely used as a drug carrier for their good stealth property in blood circulation where cholesterol maintains the stability of the liposomal lipid bilayer and PEGylation endows liposomes with long circulation capability. However, cholesterol-related disadvantages and the accelerated blood clearance (ABC) phenomenon caused by PEGylation greatly limit the application of conventional stealth liposomes in clinic. Herein, ginsenoside Rg3 was selected to substitute cholesterol and PEG for liposomes preparation (Rg3-lipo). Rg3 was proved with similar liposomal membrane regulation ability to cholesterol and comparable long circulation effect to PEG. In addition, repeated administrations of Chol-PEG-lipo and Rg3-lipo were performed. The circulation time of the second dose of Chol-PEG-lipo was substantially reduced accompanied by a greatly increased accumulation in the liver due to the induction of anti-PEG IgM and the subsequent activated complement system. In contrast, no significantly increased level of relative plasma cells, IgM secretion and the complement activation in blood circulation was observed after the second injection of Rg3-lipo. As a result, Rg3-lipo showed great stealth property without ABC phenomenon. Therefore, developing liposomes utilizing Rg3 instead of PEG and cholesterol presents a promising strategy to prolong the blood circulation time of liposomes without triggering the ABC phenomenon and activated immune responses.

Advanced multifunctional nano-lipid carrier loaded gel for targeted delivery of 5-flurouracil and cannabidiol against non-melanoma skin cancer

Non-melanoma skin cancer is one of the most common malignancies reported around the globe. Current treatment therapies fail to meet the desired therapeutic efficacy due to high degree of drug resistance. Thus, there is prominent demand in advancing the current conventional therapy to achieve desired therapeutic efficacy. To break the bottleneck, nanoparticles have been used as next generation vehicles that facilitate the efficient interaction with the cancer cells. Here, we developed combined therapy of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and cannabidiol (CBD)-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier gel (FU-CBD-NLCs gel). The current investigation has been designed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of developed 5-Flurouracil and cannabidiol loaded combinatorial lipid-based nanocarrier (FU-CBD NLCs) gel for the effective treatment of skin cancer. Initially, confocal microscopy study results showed excellent uptake and deposition at epidermal and the dermal layer. Irritation studies performed by IR camera and HET cam shows FU-CBD NLCs was much more tolerated and less irritant compared to conventional treatment. Furthermore, gamma scintigraphy evaluation shows the skin retention behavior of the formulation. Later, in-ovo tumor remission studies were performed, and it was found that prepared FU-CBD NLCs was able to reduce tumor volume significantly compared to conventional formulation. Thus, obtained results disclosed that permeation and disposition of 5-FU and CBD into different layers of the skin FU-CBD NLCs gel could be more potential carrier than conventional gel. Furthermore, prepared formulation showed greater tumor remission, better survival rate, reduction in tumor number, area, and volume with improved biochemical profile. Thus, prepared gel could serve as a promising formulation approach for the skin cancer treatment.

Ginsenoside Re inhibits melanogenesis and melanoma growth by downregulating microphthalmia-associated transcription factor

Panax ginseng, also known as Korean ginseng, is a traditional remedy widely used in Asian countries. Its major active compounds are ginsenosides, specifically triterpenoid saponins. Among them, one notable ginsenoside called Re has shown various biological effects, including anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the potential beneficial effects of Re on melanogenesis and skin cancer remain poorly understood. To investigate this, we conducted a comprehensive study using biochemical assays, cell-based models, a zebrafish pigment formation model, and a tumor xenograft model. Our results revealed that Re effectively inhibited melanin biosynthesis in a dose-dependent manner by competitively inhibiting the activity of tyrosinase, an enzyme involved in melanin production. Moreover, Re significantly reduced the mRNA expression levels of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), a key regulator of melanin biosynthesis and melanoma growth. Furthermore, Re decreased the protein expression of MITF and its target genes, including tyrosinase, TRP-1, and TRP-2, through a partially ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation mechanism, mediated by the AKT and ERK signaling pathways. These findings indicate that Re exerts its hypopigmentary effects by directly inhibiting tyrosinase activity and suppressing its expression via MITF. Additionally, Re demonstrated inhibitory effects on skin melanoma growth and induced tumor vascular normalization in our in vivo experiments. This study represents the first evidence of Re-mediated inhibition of melanogenesis and skin melanoma, shedding light on the underlying mechanisms. These promising preclinical findings warrant further investigation to determine the suitability of Re as a natural agent for treating hyperpigmentation disorders and skin cancer.

Anticolon Cancer Effect of Korean Red Ginseng via Autophagy- and Apoptosis-Mediated Cell Death

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) has been used in East Asian traditional medicine for a long time. Korean red ginseng (KRG) is effective against several disorders, including cancer. The cytotoxic effects of KRG extract in terms of autophagy- and apoptosis-mediated cell death and its mechanisms were investigated using human colorectal cancer lines. KRG induced autophagy-mediated cell death with enhanced expression of Atg5, Beclin-1, and LC3, and formed characteristic vacuoles in HCT-116 and SNU-1033 cells. An autophagy inhibitor prevented cell death induced by KRG. KRG generated mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS); antioxidant countered this effect and decreased autophagy. KRG caused apoptotic cell death by increasing apoptotic cells and sub-G₁ cells, and by activating caspases. A caspase inhibitor suppressed cell death induced by KRG. KRG increased phospho-Bcl-2 expression, but decreased Bcl-2 expression. Moreover, interaction of Bcl-2 with Beclin-1 was attenuated by KRG. Ginsenoside Rg2 was the most effective ginsenoside responsible for KRG-induced autophagy- and apoptosis-mediated cell death. KRG induced autophagy- and apoptosis-mediated cell death via mitochondrial ROS generation, and thus its administration may inhibit colon carcinogenesis.

Near-infrared light-triggered nano-prodrug for cancer gas therapy

Gas therapy (GT) has attracted increasing attention in recent years as a new cancer treatment method with favorable therapeutic efficacy and reduced side effects. Several gas molecules, such as nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and sulfur dioxide (SO2), have been employed to treat cancers by directly killing tumor cells, enhancing drug accumulation in tumors or sensitizing tumor cells to chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy or radiotherapy. Despite the great progress of gas therapy, most gas molecules are prone to nonspecific distribution when administered systemically, resulting in strong toxicity to normal tissues. Therefore, how to deliver and release gas molecules to targeted tissues on demand is the main issue to be considered before clinical applications of gas therapy. As a specific and noninvasive stimulus with deep penetration, near-infrared (NIR) light has been widely used to trigger the cleavage and release of gas from nano-prodrugs via photothermal or photodynamic effects, achieving the on-demand release of gas molecules with high controllability. In this review, we will summarize the recent progress in cancer gas therapy triggered by NIR light. Furthermore, the prospects and challenges in this field are presented, with the hope for ongoing development.

Determination of in vivo virtue of dermal targeted combinatorial lipid nanocolloidal based formulation of 5-fluorouracil and resveratrol against skin cancer

The current study has been designed to appraise the efficacy of developed combinatorial lipid-nanosystem-based gel (linogel) of 5-fluorouracil and resveratrol for skin cancer treatment. Initially, linogel was prepared and characterized for different parameters, namely pH, texture, drug content uniformity, occlusiveness, etc. Then in vivo efficacy studies (tumor number, area, and volume, histopathology, ultrastructural and immunohistochemical analysis) of linogel were determined over-developed skin tumors. Developed linogel possessed significantly (p < 0.05) better texture and occlusiveness than conventional gel formulation. Decreased tumor number, area, and volume showed significant results (p < 0.05) in favor of linogel. Histopathological and ultrastructural analysis confirmed superior efficacy of linogel in terms of marked improvement in the nucleus and subcellular structures in photomicrographs. The antioxidants and anti-inflammatory analysis findings showed a significantly (p < 0.05) potent effectiveness of linogel. The apoptotic and anti-proliferation activity of linogel was confirmed by analysis of caspase-3 and ki-67, which showed significant (p < 0.05) elevation in the level of cleaved caspase-3 and reduction in the level of ki-67 than untreated and conventional gel formulation treated tumors, indicating antitumor effect due to cancerous cell death. Thus, developed linogel fulfilled all the criteria of dermal application and exhibited efficacious therapeutic results, which could be a beneficial therapeutic approach against skin cancer.

Protocol Optimization of Proteomic Analysis of Korean Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer)

The benefits of ginseng have been mainly attributed to its triterpenoids, called ginsenosides. Recent genome sequencing of the Panax ginseng has paved the way for in-depth proteomic studies of this medicinal plant. The current study was conducted to deepen the proteomic information on the root proteome of Korean ginseng. Proteomic workflow was optimized by testing two different strategies, characterized by the phenol extraction procedure, the presence or the absence of SDS-PAGE fractionation step, and nano-scale liquid chromatographic tandem mass spectrometry (nLC-MS/MS) analysis. The results highlighted an evident improvement of proteome extraction by the combination of phenol extraction with SDS-PAGE before the nLC-MS/MS analysis. In addition, a dramatic impact of the steaming process (the treatment to produce red ginseng from ginseng) on protein properties was observed. Overall, the analyses of Korean ginseng permitted the characterization of a total of 2412 proteins. A large number of identified proteins belonged to the functional categories of protein and carbon/energy metabolism (22.4% and 14.6%, respectively). The primary and secondary metabolisms are major metabolic pathways, which emerged from the proteomic analysis. In addition, a large number of proteins known to play an important role in response to (a)biotic stresses were also identified. The current proteomic study not only confirmed the previous transcriptomic and proteomic reports but also extended proteomic information, including the main metabolic pathways involved in Korean ginseng.

Plant Natural Products: Promising Resources for Cancer Chemoprevention

Cancer is a major factor threatening human health and life safety, and there is a lack of safe and effective therapeutic drugs. Intervention and prevention in premalignant process are effective ways to reverse carcinogenesis and prevent cancer from occurring. Plant natural products are rich in sources and are a promising source for cancer chemoprevention. This article reviews the chemopreventive effects of natural products, especially focused on polyphenols, flavonoids, monoterpene and triterpenoids, sulfur compounds, and cellulose. Meanwhile, the main mechanisms include induction of apoptosis, antiproliferation and inhibition of metastasis are briefly summarized. In conclusion, this article provides evidence for natural products remaining a prominent source of cancer chemoprevention.

Chemoprotective Effect of Boeravinone B against DMBA/Croton Oil Induced Skin Cancer via Reduction of Inflammation

Inflammatory reactions and oxidative stress play a major role in cancer expansion. Boeravinone B (BB) had already proofed their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects against various animal models of disease. In this experimental research, the chemoprotective effect of BB against skin cancer caused by 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA)/croton oil was investigated and the possible mechanism was explored. Swiss albino mice were used in the current protocol. 100 µg/100 mL acetone, DMBA was used for induction the skin cancer and, after the 2-week repeated dose of croton oil (1% in acetone) give to the mice till end of the protocol. The mice were received the oral dose of BB (1.25, 2.5 and 5 mg/kg, body weight). The body weight and tumor incidence were estimated at regular time interval. At the end of the protocol, the antioxidant, phase I, phase II, pro-inflammatory cytokines and inflammatory mediators were scrutinized. The mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inflammatory mediators were estimated. BB treatment significantly (p < 0.001) reduced tumor incidence, tumor yield, average latency period and tumor burden in a dose-dependent manner. BB treatment considerably (p < 0.001) reduced the levels of lipid peroxidation (LPO) and increased the level of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT) in DMBA/croton-induced skin cancer. BB treatment significantly (p < 0.001) reduced the level of phase I and phase II enzymes. BB treatment considerably reduced the cytokines include tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-18 (IL-18), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and inflammatory parameters such as transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂), nuclear kappa B factor (NF-κB) and cycloxgenase-2 (COX-2) in DMBA/croton-induced skin cancer mice. BB considerably (p < 0.001) reduced the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inflammatory mediators. The results of the current investigation suggest that oral administration of boeravinone B significantly reduced skin cancer in mice via reduction of inflammatory reaction.

ZnS@ZIF-8 core-shell nanoparticles incorporated with ICG and TPZ to enable H2S-amplified synergistic therapy

Abnormal tumor microenvironment, such as hypoxia, interstitial hypertension and low pH, leads to unexpected resistance for current tumor treatment. The development of versatile drug delivery systems which present responsive characteristics to tumor microenvironment (TME) has been extensively carried out, but remains challenging. In this study, zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) coated ZnS nanoparticles have been designed and prepared for co-delivery of ICG/TPZ molecules, denoted as ZSZIT, for H2S-amplified synergistic therapy. Methods: The ZSZ nanoparticles were characterized using SEM, TEM and XRD. The in vitro viabilities of cancer cells cultured with ZSZIT under normoxia/hypoxia conditions were evaluated by cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. In addition, in vivo anti-tumor effect was also performed using male Balb/c nude mice as animal model. Results: ZSZIT shows cascade PDT and hypoxia-activated chemotherapeutic effect under an 808nm NIR irradiation. Meanwhile, ZSZIT degrades under tumor acidic environment, and H2S produced by ZnS cores could inhibit the expression of catalase, which subsequently favors the hypoxia and antitumor effect of TPZ drug. Both in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate the H2S-sensitized synergistic antitumor effect based on cascade PDT/chemotherapy. Conclusion: This cascade H2S-sensitized synergistic nanoplatform has enabled more effective and lasting anticancer treatment.

Colloidal (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate vesicular systems for prevention and treatment of skin cancer: A comprehensive experimental study with preclinical investigation

Skin carcinogenesis is a common malignancy affecting humans worldwide, which could benefit from nutraceuticals as a solution to the drawbacks of conventional skin cancer treatment. (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is a promising nutraceutical in this regard; however, it suffers chemical instability and low bioavailability resulting in inefficient delivery. Therefore, EGCG encapsulation in ultradeformable colloidal vesicular systems, namely: penetration enhancer-containing vesicles (PEVs), ethosomes and transethosomes (TEs) for topical administration has been attempted in this study to overcome the problems associated with the use of free EGCG. The prepared vesicles were characterized for their entrapment efficiency, TEM visualization, chemical compatibility, antioxidant properties, ex-vivo skin deposition, photodegradation and physical stability after storage. Most of the prepared vesicles exhibited reasonable skin deposition and preservation of the inherent antioxidant properties of EGCG with good physical stability. EGCG-loaded PEVs and TEs exhibited an inhibitory effect on epidermoid carcinoma cell line (A431) in addition to reduced tumor sizes in mice, confirmed with histopathological analysis and biochemical quantification of skin oxidative stress biomarkers; glutathione, superoxide dismutase and catalase, as well as lipid peroxidation. EGCG PEVs succeeded in offering an effective delivery system targeting skin cancer, which is worthy of further experimentation.

Novel ginsenoside-based multifunctional liposomal delivery system for combination therapy of gastric cancer

The clinical treatment of gastric cancer (GC) is hampered by the development of anticancer drug resistance and the unfavorable pharmacokinetics, off-target toxicity, and inadequate intratumoral accumulation of the current chemotherapy treatments. Ginsenosides combined with paclitaxel (PTX) have been shown to exert synergistic inhibition of human GC cell proliferation. In the present study, we developed a novel multifunctional liposome system, in which ginsenosides functioned as the chemotherapy adjuvant and membrane stabilizer. These had long blood circulation times and active targeting abilities, thus creating multifunctionality of the liposomes and facilitating drug administration to the GC cells. Methods: Three ginsenosides with different structures were used to formulate the unique nanocarrier, which was prepared using the thin-film hydration method. The stability of the ginsenoside liposomes was determined by particle size analysis using dynamic light scattering. The long circulation time of ginsenoside liposomes was compared with that of conventional liposome and polyethylene glycosylated liposomes in vivo. The active targeting effect of ginsenoside liposomes was examined with a GC xenograft model using an in vivo imaging system. To examine the antitumor activity of ginsenoside liposomes against GC, MTT, cell cycle, and apoptosis assays were performed on BGC-823 cells in vitro and PTX-loaded ginsenoside liposomes were prepared to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy on GC in vivo. Results: The ginsenosides stabilized the liposomes in a manner similar to cholesterol. We confirmed the successful delivery of the bioactive combination drugs and internalization into GC cells via analysis of the glucose-related transporter recognition and longer blood circulation time. PTX was encapsulated in different liposomal formulations for use as a combination therapy, in which ginsenosides were found to exert their inherent anticancer activity, as well as act synergistically with PTX. The combination therapy using these targeted liposomes significantly suppressed GC tumor growth and outperformed most reported PTX formulations, including Lipusu® and Abraxane®. Conclusion: We established novel ginsenoside-based liposomes as a tumor-targeting therapy, in which ginsenoside functioned not only as a chemotherapy adjuvant, but also as a functional membrane material. Ginsenoside-based liposomes offer a novel platform for anticancer drug delivery and may lead to a new era of nanocarrier treatments for cancer.

Radix et Rhizoma Ginseng chemoprevents both initiation and promotion of cutaneous carcinoma by enhancing cell-mediated immunity and maintaining redox homeostasis

Background

Radix et Rhizoma Ginseng (thereafter called ginseng) has been used as a medicinal herb for thousands of years to maintain people's physical vitality and is also a non–organ-specific cancer preventive and therapeutic traditional medicine in several epidemiologic and preclinical studies. Owing to few toxic side effects and strong enhancement on body immunity, ginseng has admirable application potential and value in cancer chemoprevention. The study aims at investigating the chemopreventive effects of ginseng on cutaneous carcinoma and the underlying mechanisms.

Methods

The mouse skin cancer model was induced by 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene/12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. Ultraperformance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry was used for identifying various ginsenosides, the main active ingredients of ginseng. Comprehensive approaches (including network pharmacology, bioinformatics, and experimental verification) were used to explore the potential targets of ginseng.

Results

Ginseng treatment inhibited cutaneous carcinoma in terms of initiation and promotion. The content of Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd ginsenosides was the highest in both mouse blood and skin tissues. Ginseng and its active components well maintained the redox homeostasis and modulated the immune response in the model. Specifically, ginseng treatment inhibited the initiation of skin cancer by enhancing T-cell–mediated immune response through upregulating HSP27 expression and inhibited the promotion of skin cancer by maintaining cellular redox homeostasis through promoting nuclear translocation of Nrf2.

Conclusion

According to the study results, ginseng can be potentially used for cutaneous carcinoma as a chemopreventive agent by enhancing cell-mediated immunity and maintaining redox homeostasis with multiple components, targets, and links.

Are polyphenol antioxidants at the root of medicinal plant anti-cancer success?

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Given the severe side effects associated with most of the conventional cancer medications, as well as the expanding body of evidence indicating secondary toxicity of these drugs, individuals with cancer are increasingly turning to natural alternatives. Similarly, the pharmaceutical industry is in search of natural products to treat cancer. An understanding of the specific active components in plant products with which anti-cancer efficacy is achieved is required for this research to move forward.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To integrate data from cancer-relatestudies on plant-derived products or extracts, to elucidate whether these products may have similar active ingredients and/or mechanisms of action, that can explain their efficacy. This review also includes a discussion of the methodological complexities and important considerations involved in accurate isolation and characterisation of active substances from plant material.

CONCLUSIONS

From the literature reviewed, most plant products with consistently reported anti-cancer efficacy contains high levels of polyphenols or other potent antioxidants and their mechanisms of action correlate to that reported for isolated antioxidants in the context of cancer. This suggests that natural products may indeed become the panacea against this chronic disease - either as therapeutic medicine strategy or to serve as templates for the design of novel synthetic drugs. The recommendation is made that antioxidant activity of plant actives and especially polyphenols, should be the focus of anti-cancer drug discovery initiatives. Lastly, researchers are advised to exploit current techniques of chemical compound characterisation when investigating polyphenol-rich plants to enable the easy consolidation of research findings from different laboratories.

Ginseng phytochemicals as therapeutics in oncology: Recent perspectives

During the last few decades, cancer has mushroomed as a major health issue; and almost all drugs used for its therapy are very toxic with lethal side effects. Complementary and alternative medicines gain popularity among health professionals in recent era owing to its preventive mechanism against side effect chemotherapeutic drugs. Efforts are focused by scientists to isolate compounds from medicinal plant that have chemotherapeutic attributes; and ability to neutralize the side effects of chemotherapy. Ginseng is an oriental medicinal recipe from Araliceae family and Panax species. The chemotherapeutic effect of ginsenoside is resultant of its appetites, anti-proliferative, anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties. The anticancer effect of ginseng is proven in various types of cancer, including; breast, lung, liver, colon and skin cancer. It increases the mitochondrial accumulation of apoptosis protein and downregulate the expression of anti-apoptotic protein. It also aids in the reduction of alopecia, fatigue and nausea, the known side effects of chemotherapeutic drugs. The aim of the present review is to provide the brief review of the recent researches related to mechanism of action of ginseng in different types of cancer as complementary and alternative medicine on different body organs.

Bioconversion, health benefits, and application of ginseng and red ginseng in dairy products

Ginseng and red ginseng are popular as functional foods in Asian countries such as Korea, Japan, and China. They possess various pharmacologic effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, and anti-viral activities. Ginsenosides are a class of pharmacologically active components in ginseng and red ginseng. Major ginsenosides are converted to minor ginsenosides, which have better bioavailability and cellular uptake, by microorganisms and enzymes. Studies have shown that ginseng and red ginseng can affect the physicochemical and sensory properties, ginsenosides content, and functional properties of dairy products. In addition, lactic acid bacteria in dairy products can convert into minor ginsenosides and ginseng and red ginseng improve functionality of products. This review will discuss the characteristics of ginseng and red ginseng, and their bioconversion, functionality, and application in dairy products.

Functional role of ginseng-derived compounds in cancer

Ginseng is a natural product best known for its curative properties in diverse physiological processes such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, hypertension, and maintenance of hemostasis in the immune system. In previous decades, there have been some promising studies into the pharmacology and chemistry of ginseng components and the relationship between their structure and function. The emerging use of modified ginseng and development of new compounds from ginseng for clinical studies have been topics of study for many researchers. The present review deals with the anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and chemopreventive effects, and recent advances in microRNA technology related to red ginseng. The review also summarizes the current knowledge on the effect of ginsenosides in the treatment of cancer.

Control Efficacy of Streptomyces sp. A501 against Ginseng Damping-off and Its Antifungal Substance

Ginseng damping-off, caused by the fungal pathogens Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium sp., is a critical disease in ginseng seedling. In a continuing effort to find microorganisms with the potential of acting as a biocontrol agent against Rhizoctonia damping-off, we found that a Streptomyces sp. A501 showed significant antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia solani. In field experiment to test the efficacy of Streptomyces sp. A501 in controlling ginseng damping-off, the incidence of damping-off disease was meaningfully reduced when ginseng seeds were soaked in the culture broth of Streptomyces sp. A501 before sowing. To perform characterization of the antifungal compound, we isolated it from the culture broth of strain A501 through Diaion HP-20 and silica gel column chromatographies and preparative high-performance liquid chromatography. The structure of the antifungal compound was assigned as fungichromin by spectroscopic methods, mainly nuclear magnetic resonance and electrospray ionization-mass analysis.

Inhibitory Effect of Ginseng on Breast Cancer Cell Line Growth Via Up-Regulation of Cyclin Dependent Kinase Inhibitor, p21 and p53

Objective:

Breast cancer is global female health problem worldwide. Most of the currently used agents for breast cancer treatment have toxic side-effects. Ginseng root, an oriental medicine, has many health benefits and may exhibit direct anti-cancer properties. This study was performed to assess the effects of ginseng on breast cancer cell lines.

Materials and Methods:

Cytotoxicity of ginseng extract was measured by MTT assay after exposure of MDA-MB-231, MCF-10A and MCF-7 breast cancer cells to concentrations of 0.25, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 and 2.5 mg/well. Expression levels of p21WAF, p16INK4A, Bcl-2, Bax and P53 genes were analyzed by quantitative real time PCR.

Results:

The treatment resulted in inhibition of cell proliferation in a dose-and time-dependent manner. p53, p21WAF1and p16INK4A expression levels were up-regulated in ginseng treated MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cancer cells compared to untreated controls and in MCF-10A cells. The expression levels of Bcl2 in the MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells were down-regulated. In contrast, that of Bax was significantly up-regulated.

Conclusion:

The results of this study revealed that ginseng may inhibit breast cancer cell growth by activation of the apoptotic pathway.

Implications of red Panax ginseng in oxidative stress associated chronic diseases

The steaming process of Panax ginseng has been reported to increase its major known bioactive components, ginsenosides, and, therefore, its biological properties as compared to regular Panax ginseng. Biological functions of red Panax ginseng attenuating pro-oxidant environments associated with chronic diseases are of particular interest, since oxidative stress can be a key contributor to the pathogenesis of chronic diseases. Additionally, proper utilization of various biomarkers for evaluating antioxidant activities in natural products, such as ginseng, can also be important to providing validity to their activities. Thus, studies on the effects of red ginseng against various diseases as determined in cell lines, animal models, and humans were reviewed, along with applied biomarkers for verifying such effects. Limitations and future considerations of studying red ginseng were been discussed. Although further clinical studies are warranted, red ginseng appears to be beneficial for attenuating disease-associated symptoms via its antioxidant activities, as well as for preventing oxidative stress-associated chronic diseases.

A 1H NMR-based metabolomics approach to evaluate the geographical authenticity of herbal medicine and its application in building a model effectively assessing the mixing proportion of intentional admixtures: A case study of Panax ginseng: Metabolomics for the authenticity of herbal medicine

Ginseng, the root of Panax ginseng has long been the subject of adulteration, especially regarding its origins. Here, 60 ginseng samples from Korea and China initially displayed similar genetic makeup when investigated by DNA-based technique with 23 chloroplast intergenic space regions. Hence, (1)H NMR-based metabolomics with orthogonal projections on the latent structure-discrimination analysis (OPLS-DA) were applied and successfully distinguished between samples from two countries using seven primary metabolites as discrimination markers. Furthermore, to recreate adulteration in reality, 21 mixed samples of numerous Korea/China ratios were tested with the newly built OPLS-DA model. The results showed satisfactory separation according to the proportion of mixing. Finally, a procedure for assessing mixing proportion of intentionally blended samples that achieved good predictability (adjusted R(2)=0.8343) was constructed, thus verifying its promising application to quality control of herbal foods by pointing out the possible mixing ratio of falsified samples.

A herbal formula, comprising Panax ginseng and bee-pollen, inhibits development of testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in male Wistar rats

A recent study reported that Panax ginseng (P. ginseng) has a protective effect on the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). KH053 is used as a new herbal prescription consisting of P. ginseng and bee-pollen. The present study aimed to investigate whether the KH053 has inhibition effects on the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) using an animal model with testosterone induced BPH. The experiment was carried out in forty male Wistar 7 week old rats that were divided into four groups (control group, BPH group, positive group, and KH053 group). One group was used as the control and the three groups received subcutaneous injections of testosterone 20 mg/kg for 4 weeks to induce BPH. One of them received KH053 by oral gavage daily at doses of 200 mg/kg concurrently with the testosterone. The positive group received finasteride at a dose of 1 mg/kg with testosterone. After 4 weeks, all rats were sacrificed and analyzed for prostate weight, and growth factors. Results revealed that, compared to rats in the BPH group, KH053 showed that the prostate weight and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) levels in serum were significantly decreased and the decreases in hyperplasia in prostate were also observed. In addition, immunohistochemistry (IHC) also revealed that the protein expressions of growth factors [transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)] in prostate tissue were decreased in the KH053 group. In conclusion, these results suggest that KH053, comprising P. ginseng and bee-pollen, inhibits the development of BPH in Wistar rat model and might be used as functional food for BPH.

Antifungal Substances from Streptomyces sp. A3265 Antagonistic to Plant Pathogenic Fungi

In a previous study, we identified a Streptomyces sp., A3265, as exhibiting potent antifungal activity against various plant pathogenic fungi, including Botrytis cinerea, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Rhizoctonia solani. This strain also exhibited a biocontrolling effect against ginseng root rot and damping-off disease, common diseases of ginseng and other crops. In this study, we isolated two antifungal substances responsible for this biocontrolling effect via Diaion HP-20 and Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography, medium pressure liquid chromatography, and high-performance liquid chromatography. These compounds were identified as guanidylfungin A and methyl guanidylfungin A by spectroscopic methods. These compounds exhibited potent antimicrobial activity against various plant pathogenic fungi as well as against bacteria.