Simultaneous in-vial acetylation solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for the analysis of multiclass organic UV filters in water

Organic ultraviolet filters in Hainan coral reefs: Distribution, accumulation, and ecological risks

Organic ultraviolet filters (OUVFs) have been widely used as functional ingredients of sunscreen products and have entered into marine ecosystems, particularly in tropical areas where solar UV radiation is strong. These chemicals, with their potential toxicity and ecological risk, have raised widespread concern for the protection of the fragile marine ecosystem of coral reefs. In this study, fourteen OUVFs were analyzed among 24 coral species, together with their habitats including seawater and sediment from the coastal coral reef regions of Hainan Island, South China Sea. Surprisingly, all of fourteen OUVFs were detected in each sample, indicating the wide distribution of OUVFs among sites and samples. Among the fourteen OUVFs, benzophenone-3 (BP-3) and 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) were the most abundant, with concentrations ranging from 35.3 to 75.6 and 38.3 to 61.4 ng/L in seawater, from 13.2 to 25.9 and 7.0 to 17.4 ng/g dw in sediment, and from 4.5 to 21.3 and 4.4 to 19.7 ng/g dw in corals, respectively. Analysis of OUVFs in 24 coral species pointed that OUVFs accumulation in corals is morphology dependent: the highest concentration of OUVFs was identified in Galaxea fascicularis with abundant of polyps and tentacles while the lowest levels of OUVFs were found in Porites mayeri (smooth or lobed surface). In corals, we found that these OUVFs accumulated, depending on the coral species and the types of OUVFs. The ecological risk assessment further indicated that BP-3, 4-MBC and BP-8 had posed risks to corals. In addition, significantly higher concentrations of OUVFs were observed in Sanya (a seaside tourist resort) than in the other sites, suggesting that tourist activity and use of sunscreen products are the key to high inputs of sunscreen agents into marine ecosystem. Overall, our study demonstrates a potential risk role for OUVFs in coral protection in tropical areas where coral bleaching events occur.

Environmental contamination and risks of organic UV filters: Source, discharge, analytical methods and implications for ecological and human health

Organic Ultraviolet Filters (OUVFs), commonly used in sunscreens, cosmetics and industrial products to prevent ultraviolet radiation damage, are increasingly detected in the environment due to their widespread use and persistence. This has raised concerns over their toxicity and environmental impact, leading to the classification of OUVF 2-(2H-Benzotriazol-2-yl)-4,6-ditertpentylphenol (UV-328) as a persistent organic pollutant under the Stockholm Convention in 2023. In this review, current knowledge on the usage, discharge and environmental contamination of OUVFs is briefly discussed. The available analytical methodologies are also reviewed, especially for the extraction and detection of OUVFs in different matrix samples. Finally, the reported levels of OUVFs pollution in surface water, drinking water, aquatic organisms and human urine worldwide are discussed, along with their potential implications for ecological and human health. In general, typical OUVFs ethylhexyl methoxy cinnamate (EHMC) and Octocrylene (OC) have been shown to pose a significant potential risks in the surface waters of multiple countries such as Australia, China, Japan, the United States. Furthermore, while the OUVFs exposure concentrations in drinking water are generally low (below detection limit to 450 ng/L), prolonged exposure may still present potential health risks for humans.

Are UV filters better together? A comparison of the toxicity of individual ultraviolet filters and off-the-shelf sunscreens to Daphnia magna

Organic ultraviolet filters (UVFs) are known to contaminate many aquatic ecosystems, with much environmental contamination attributed to the use of UVF-containing skin care products such as sunscreens during aquatic recreation. Most studies addressing the impact of sunscreen contamination have focused on the effects of UVFs under the assumption that they are the primary contaminants of concern from sunscreen pollution; however, the extent to which the toxicity of UVFs is representative of the environmental impacts of the whole sunscreen mixture is unknown. To address this knowledge gap, this study compared the mixture toxicity of five off-the-shelf sunscreen spray products containing the UVFs avobenzone, homosalate, octisalate, octocrylene and oxybenzone to the toxicity of each UVF in isolation to the freshwater invertebrate Daphnia magna. It was found that sunscreen toxicity was not proportional to their total UVF content, as the sunscreen containing the fewest UVFs was approximately equivalent to the sunscreen with the most UVFs, causing ≥90 % mortality and inhibiting all daphnid reproduction over 21 d exposures. Sunscreen toxicity was typically lower than expected when compared to the toxicity of each individual UVF within the mixture, as some sunscreens causing ≤20 % mortality contained octocrylene and/or oxybenzone at concentrations exceeding those which caused 90 % mortality during exposure to the UVF alone. Despite sunscreens causing large impairments in reproduction, growth and metabolism, poor correlations existed between the severity of most sublethal endpoints with respect to the measured UVF content of each sunscreen. Overall, these results indicate that potential antagonistic relationships between sunscreen ingredients can greatly reduce the toxicity of UVFs, creating more uncertainty regarding the level of threat that UVFs pose to the environment as a result of sunscreen contamination.

Recent advances in solid phase microextraction with various geometries in environmental analysis

Solid phase microextraction (SPME) has emerged as a versatile sample preparation technique for the preconcentration of a broad range of compounds with various polarities, especially in environmental studies. SPME has demonstrated its eco-friendly credentials, significantly reducing the reliance on solvents. The use of biocompatible materials as a coating recipe facilitates the acceptance of SPME devices in analytical chemistry, primarily in the monitoring of environmental pollutants such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and pesticides from the various environmental matrices. During the last few years, investigators have reported an improvement in the SPME enrichment technique after changing the coating recipe, geometries, and sampling procedure from the complex matrices. Furthermore, the development of various geometries of SPME with large surface areas has enhanced the extraction efficiency of environmental pollutants. As a miniaturized sample preparation technique, SPME significantly reduces the solvent usage, suggesting a potential platform for green chemistry-based research for water, air, and soil analysis. This review article summarizes the evolution of SPME, its various modes, the application of SPME, recent innovations, and prospects for the determination of water, air, and soil pollution. The advantages and disadvantages of SPME in comparison to other extraction techniques have been discussed here. This review serves as a valuable resource for investigators working in sustainable environmental research.

Degradation of organic UV filters in the water environment: A concise review on the mechanism, toxicity, and technologies

Organic ultraviolet filters (OUVFs) have been used globally for the past 20 years. Given that OUVFs can be quickly released from sunscreens applied on human skins, they have been frequently detected in aquatic environments and organisms. Some byproducts of OUVFs might be more recalcitrant and toxic than their parent compounds. To further assess the toxicity and potential risk of OUVFs' byproducts, it is necessary to determine the fate of OUVFs and identify their transformation products. This review summarizes and analyzes pertinent literature and reports in the field of OUVFs research. These published research works majorly focus on the degradation mechanisms of OUVFs in aquatic environments, their intermediates/byproducts, and chlorination reaction. Photodegradation (direct photolysis, self-sensitive photolysis and indirect photolysis) and biodegradation are the main transformation pathways of OUVFs through natural degradation. To remove residual OUVFs' pollutants from aqueous environments, novel physicochemical and biological approaches have been developed in recent years. Advanced oxidation, ultrasound, and bio-based technologies have been proven to eliminate OUVFs from wastewaters. In addition, the disinfection mechanism and the byproducts (DBPs) of various OUVFs in swimming pools are discussed in this review. Besides, knowledge gaps and future research directions in this field of study are also mentioned.

Easy determination of benzophenone and its derivatives in sunscreen samples by direct-immersion solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Benzophenones (BPs) absorb different sun radiation wavelengths, making them effective UVA and UVB filters, widely used in industry. In Europe, sunscreen products contain regulated amounts (6 % w/w) of benzophenone-3 (BP-3), usually combined with other filters like octocrylene. BPs are mutagens in UV radiation, and octocrylene may degrade into BPs, making their monitoring crucial. The present manuscript proposed a novel procedure based on liquid-liquid extraction followed by direct-immersion solid-phase microextraction (LLE-DI-SPME) to isolate and determine 10 BPs in sunscreen lotions with potential results. Parameters like extraction solvent, pH, adsorption, desorption time, stirring, sating effect, and presence of organic solvents were optimized and compared with different SPME fibers, being polyacrylate (PA) fiber the most effective. Detection and quantification were performed by gas chromatography-mass-spectrometry. Analytical parameters as limits of detection were 0.05-0.10 µg kg-1, while the linear range was 0.16 up to 2000 µg kg-1. In terms of recovery, the method ranged from 83 % to 103 %; the precision of the method was good in terms of relative standard deviation (RSD) from 3.2 % to 18.7 % and without a remarkable matrix effect (-15.06-8.45 %). Despite the complexity of the samples and the difficulty posed by the DI-SPME technique, the method proved robust. The proposed method successfully detected 10 BPs in 6 different sunscreen lotions. The total presence of BPs in sunscreens ranged from 165 to 931 mg kg-1, with BP-3 detected in all samples from 4.2 to 740 mg kg-1.

Fe3O4@UiO-66-NH2 based on magnetic solid phase extraction for determination of organic UV filters in environmental water samples

In this work, a nanocomposite structured magnetic metal-organic framework named as Fe3O4@UiO-66-NH2 was prepared via a simple hydrothermal approach. The as-mentioned nanocomposite was characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) techniques. Using the Fe3O4@UiO-66-NH2 as a nanosorbent, an easy and highly effective approach was developed to preconcentrate nine organic UV filters before gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Different conditions influencing the extraction efficiency encompassing the sorbent amount, nature and volume of desorption solvent, desorption time, pH of the sample, and extraction time, were examined. Under the optimal experimental parameters, the Fe3O4@UiO-66-NH2-based magnetic solid phase extraction and GC-MS (MSPE-GC-MS) demonstrated linearity in the range of 0.03-1500 ng/L (R2 ≥ 0.9974) and the reproducibility, expressed as RSD, was ≤7.5%. The limits of detection ranged between 0.01 and 0.07 ng/L and limits of quantification were in the range of 0.03-0.4 ng/L. Finally, the suggested approach was satisfactorily utilized to determine nine organic UV filters in different water samples (analytical recoveries between 86.5% and 104.2%).

Melamine-participant hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks with strong hydrogen bonds and hierarchical micropores driving extraction of nitroaromatic compounds

Enrichment and detection of trace pollutants in the real matrix are essential for evaluating water quality. In this study, benefiting from the good affinities of 1,3,6,8-tetra(4-carboxylphenyl)pyrene) (H4TBAPy) with itself and melamine (MA) respectively, the composite hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks (HOFs, MA/PFC-1), PFC-1 self-assembled by 1,3,6,8-tetra(4-carboxylphenyl)pyrene), were successfully constructed by the mild strategy of solvent evaporation at room temperature. Through a series of characterizations, such as Fourier transform infrared spectra, X-ray diffraction, thermal gravimetric analyses, and N2 adsorption-desorption, etc., the MA/PFC-1 was confirmed to be a stable and excellent material. In addition, it possessed high surface area, hierarchical micropores, strong hydrogen bonds, and rich function groups containing N and O heteroatoms, since the newly introduced MA could be another hydrogen bonding motif, as well as increased the polarity of reaction solvent. These advantages make MA/PFC-1 be an ideal coating material for solid phase microextraction (SPME). Satisfactory enrichment factors for nitroaromatic compounds (NACs) were got by the MA/PFC-1 fiber under the optimized conditions obtained by the control variables (extraction time of 60 min, extraction temperature of 80 °C, desorption time of 6 min, desorption temperature of 260 °C, pH value of 7, and stirring speed of 250 rpm). MA/PFC-1 was further used to develop an analytical method for NACs based on head-space SPME coupled with gas chromatography‒mass spectrometry (GC‒MS). The developed method with low limits of detection (4.30-20.83 ng L-1) and good reproducibility (relative standard deviations <8.6%). The excellent performance allowed the successful application of the developed method in the determinations of trace NACs in real water samples with recoveries of 80.1%-119%. This study proposed a mild approach to synthesize composite HOFs via doping MA and developed an environmentally friendly method for the precise determinations of NACs in the environment.

Salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction combined with LC-MS/MS for the simultaneous determination of seven organic UV filters in environmental water samples: method development and application

Organic UV filters (OUVFs), the active ingredient in sunscreens, are of environmental concern due to reported ecotoxicological effects in aquatic biota. Determining the environmental concentrations of these chemicals is essential for understanding their fate and potential environmental risk. Salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction (SALLE) coupled with liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was developed for simultaneous extraction, separation, and quantification of seven OUVFs (2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone, 2,2',4,4'-tetrahydroxybenzophenone, 4-methylbenzylidene camphor, butyl-methoxy-dibenzoyl methane, octocrylene, octyl methoxycinnamate, and oxybenzone). Method detection limits (MDLs) ranged from 11 to 45 ng/L and practical quantification limits (PQLs) from 33 to 135 ng/L. Method trueness, evaluated in terms of recovery, was 69-127%. Inter-day and intra-day variability was < 6% RSD. The coefficients of determination were > 0.97. The method was applied to river and seawater samples collected at 19 sites in and near Port Phillip Bay, Australia, and temporal variation in OUVF concentrations was studied at two sites. Concentrations of OUVF were detected at 10 sites; concentrations of individual OUVFs were 51-7968 ng/L, and the maximum total OUVF concentration detected at a site was 8431 ng/L. Recreational activity and water residence time at the site contributed to OUVF's environmental presence and persistence. The benefits of the SALLE-LC-MS/MS method include its simple operation, good selectivity, precision over a wide linear range, and that obtained extracts can be directly injected into the LC-MS/MS, overall making it an attractive method for the determination of these OUVFs in environmental water matrices. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the occurrence of OUVFs in Port Phillip Bay, Australia.

Occurrence, bioaccumulation and ecological risk of organic ultraviolet absorbers in multiple coastal and offshore coral communities of the South China Sea

The occurrence of organic ultraviolet absorbers (OUVAs) in coral reef regions has aroused widespread concern. This study focused on the occurrence, distribution, bioaccumulation and ecological risk of ten OUVAs in both coastal and offshore coral reef regions in the South China Sea. While the Σ₁₀OUVAs was 85 % lower in the offshore seawater (15.1 ng/L) than in the coastal seawater (102.1 ng/L), the Σ₁₀OUVAs was 21 % lower in the offshore corals (1.82 μg/g dry weight (dw)) than in the coastal corals (2.31 μg/g dw). This difference was speculated to relate to the high intensity of human activities in the coastal regions. Moreover, the offshore corals showed higher bioaccumulative capability toward OUVAs (log bioaccumulation factors (BAFs): 1.22-5.07) than the coastal corals (log BAFs: 0.17-4.38), which was presumably the influence of varied physiological status under different environmental conditions. The results of the ecological risk assessment showed that BP-3 resulted in 73 % of coastal corals and 20 % of offshore corals at a risk of bleaching. Therefore, the usage and discharge of BP-3 should be managed and controlled by the countries adjacent to the South China Sea for the protection of coral reefs.

Can short-term data accurately model long-term environmental exposures? Investigating the multigenerational adaptation potential of Daphnia magna to environmental concentrations of organic ultraviolet filters

Organic ultraviolet filters (UVFs) are contaminants of concern, ubiquitously found in many aquatic environments due to their use in personal care products to protect against ultraviolet radiation. Research regarding the toxicity of UVFs such as avobenzone, octocrylene and oxybenzone indicate that these chemicals may pose a threat to invertebrate species; however, minimal long-term studies have been conducted to determine how these UVFs may affect continuously exposed populations. The present study modeled the effects of a 5-generation exposure of Daphnia magna to these UVFs at environmental concentrations. Avobenzone and octocrylene resulted in minor, transient decreases in reproduction and wet mass. Oxybenzone exposure resulted in > 40% mortality, 46% decreased reproduction, and 4-fold greater reproductive failure over the F0 and F1 generations; however, normal function was largely regained by the F2 generation. These results indicate that Daphnia are able to acclimate over long-term exposures to concentrations of 6.59 μg/L avobenzone, ∼0.6 μg/L octocrylene or 16.5 μg/L oxybenzone. This suggests that short-term studies indicating high toxicity may not accurately represent long-term outcomes in wild populations, adding additional complexity to risk assessment practices at a time when many regions are considering or implementing UVF bans in order to protect these most sensitive invertebrate species.

Mapping the Complex Journey of Swimming Pool Contaminants: A Multi-Method Systems Approach

Swimming pool owners worldwide face the challenging task of keeping their pool water balanced and free from contaminants. However, swimming pool water (SPW) quality management is complex with the countless processes and interactions of interlinked system variables. For example, contamination with sunscreen residues is inevitable as users apply sunscreen to protect their skin from damaging ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Nanoparticulate titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2) is one such residues that have received criticism due to potential human health and environmental risks. Despite ongoing research studies, management strategies of nano-TiO2 in swimming pools are still limited. Therefore, this paper focuses on developing a multi-method approach for identifying and understanding interdependencies between TiO2 particles and an aquatic environment such as a swimming pool. Given the complexity of the system to be assessed, the authors utilise a systems approach by integrating cross-matrix multiplication (MICMAC) and Systems Thinking techniques. The developed conceptual model visually depicts the complex system, which provides users with a basic understanding of swimming pool chemistry, displaying the numerous cause-and-effect relationships and enabling users to identify leverage points that can effectively change the dynamics of the system. Such systems-level understanding, and actions will help to manage nano-TiO2 levels in an efficient manner. The novelty of this paper is the proposed methodology, which uses a systems approach to conceptualise the complex interactions of contaminants in swimming pools and important pathways to elevated contaminant levels.

Occurrence and environmental hazard of organic UV filters in seawater and wastewater from Gran Canaria Island (Canary Islands, Spain)

Organic ultraviolet (UV) filters are used in personal care products, but they are also added to industrial products and are constantly released to the environment. This study analyses the occurrence of 8 widely used organic UV filters in seawater from three beaches on the Gran Canaria Island (Spain) and in three wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) by taking samples from influents and effluents. It also discusses the target compounds' post-treatment removal efficiencies. Sampling was carried out for 6 months and analytes were extracted by solid phase extraction with Sep-pak C18 cartridges. They were determined by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem. The potential environmental hazard associated with the found concentrations was also assessed for marine organisms. Different target compounds were detected on the analysed beaches and in the wastewater. Benzophenone-3 (BP3) was the most recurrent compound in the seawater samples (frequency detection of 83%) and also in wastewater influents and effluents (measured in all the samples). However, the highest concentrations for seawater (172 μg L^-1) and influent wastewater (208 μg L^-1) corresponded to octocrylene, while methylene bis-benzotriazolyltetramethylbutylphenol was the compound most concentrated in secondary treatment effluent (34.0 μg L^-1) and BP3 in tertiary treatment effluent (8.07 μg L^-1). All the analysed samples showed that at least one target UV filter was present. Regarding the removal efficiencies of these compounds in the studied WWTPs, consistent differences between the target compounds were observed in influent concentration terms, where the average removal rates were higher than 50% for most of the compounds. Conventional treatment is unable to completely remove many studied compounds, while tertiary treatment acts as an additional elimination for some of them. An environmental hazard quotient above 1 was found for octocrylene, benzophenone-3 and 4-methylbenzylidene camphor, which indicates a potential high hazard for living species if these compounds are present.

Determination of Benzophenones in Water and Cosmetics Samples: A Comparison of Solid-Phase Extraction and Microextraction by Packed Sorbent Methods

Benzophenones (BPs) are extensively used in a wide variety of cosmetic products and other materials (e.g., textiles or plastics) to avoid damaging effects of UV radiation. In the present work, we compared two extraction methods for the determination of BPs, namely, 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone (BP-1), 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (BP-3) and 2,2-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (BP-8), in water and cosmetics samples. The following extraction methods were used for the research: solid-phase extraction (SPE) and microextraction by packed sorbent (MEPS), whereas analysis was performed by gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection. A comparison between the methods indicates that the MEPS technique(s) can be reliably used for analysis of BPs (sunscreen residue) in water samples and cosmetic samples with satisfactory results. This microextraction technique is cheap, easy, quick to implement, and consumes small amounts of solvents. On the other hand, the main advantage of the SPE method are low detection limits for the determination of BPs in water samples, i.e., from 0.034 to 0.067 µg L⁻¹, while, for the MEPS method, LODs were at the level of 1.8–3.2 µg L⁻¹. For both methods, the recoveries of BPs were 96–107% and 44–70% for water and cosmetics samples, respectively. The presented methods are suitable for use in cosmetics quality control and environmental pollution assessment.

A paper-based polystyrene/nylon Janus platform for the microextraction of UV filters in water samples as proof-of-concept

A new mix-mode cellulose-based sorptive phase is described that combines two different polymeric domains (i.e., nylon and polystyrene), thus providing simultaneous hydrophilic and hydrophobic features as a result. By analogy with Janus materials, the new paper-based sorptive phase has been named paper-based polystyrene/nylon Janus-platform (P-Ps/Ny-JP). The main advantages of the proposed P-Ps/Ny-JP are the sustainability, simplicity in synthesis, and low cost of this extraction device. The main parameters affecting the synthesis (i.e., coating procedure and polymers proportion) have been studied, and the resulting material has been characterized via scanning electron microscopy and infrared spectroscopy. As a proof-of-concept, the simultaneous extraction of fourteen UV filters of a wide range of polarity, with log P values ranging from - 0.234 to 16.129, from water samples and their determination by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has been performed. The proposed methodology enables the determination of these chemicals with limits of detection from 12 to 71 ng L^-1, and the precision, expressed as a relative standard deviation, was below 15%. The extraction device was applied to the analysis of real water samples likely to contain UV filters (i.e., two private swimming pool water and one seawater) and the recovery values were in the range 73-121%.

Quantitative detection of crystal violet using a surface-enhanced Raman scattering based on a flower-like HAp/Ag nanocomposite

Herein, we proposed a simple one-pot sol-thermal strategy to prepare a highly sensitive and reproducible SERS substrate. The silver-doped hydroxyapatite nanocomposite (HAp/Ag) could suppress the oxidation of silver nanoparticles, which endow the SERS substrate with good stability and reproducibility. Due to the strong interaction between the HAp/Ag substrate and the analytes, a stronger Raman signal generated during the process of SERS detection. In particular, the HAp/Ag substrate enabled the determination of rhodamine 6G (R6G) and crystal violet (CV), and the limits of detection (LOD) were low at 10^-6 M and 10^-5 M, respectively. In addition, the HAp/Ag substrate could be used for the quantitative analysis of CV in wastewater with a good linear relationship between 10^-2 and 10^-5 M. In this context, the HAp/Ag substrate combines the superior properties of both Ag NPs and HAp particles, providing a potential method for monitoring the environment and building a convenient SERS platform to detect pollutants in wastewater.

Trends in environmental and toxicity research on organic ultraviolet filters: A scientometric review

In recent decades, the potential toxicological and environmental effects of organic ultraviolet filters (OUVF) have received growing attention. The number of studies in this area has increased; however, presently there is no scientometric perspective addressing this topic. The purpose of this study is to identify the intellectual base and research front using the visualization and analysis software, CiteSpace. We retrieved 453 articles, published in print or online as an early-access article between 2002 and 2020, from the Web of Science with a topic search related to OUVFs, environment, and toxicology. We then analysed synthesized networks of co-authorship (author, institution, country), co-citation (author, document, journal) and co-occurring keywords. The annual publication output has trended upwards since 2002. Authors based in China accounted for 29.4% of the total publications, followed by USA (17.4%); but overall publications from Switzerland and Spain were more influential. Major research themes identified included OUVF concentrations in aquatic environments, and hormonal effects. Emerging themes included improving the sensitivity of analytical detection methods for both OUVFs and their metabolites, consequences of OUVF transport to the marine environment, and concerns over prenatal exposure. Based on keyword analysis, benzophenone-3, 4-methylbenzylidene-camphor, 3-benzylidene camphor, and ethylhexyl-methoxycinnamate are the most studied OUVFs, and effects on estrogenic activity, gene expression, reproduction, and more recently, oxidative stress, have received most attention from a toxicological perspective. Other prominent topics were sources of environmental contamination and ecological risk assessments. This study maps the major research domains of OUVF environmental toxicology research; explanations and implications of the findings are discussed; and emerging trends highlighted.

A solidified floating organic drop-dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction based on in situ formed fatty acid-based deep eutectic solvents for the extraction of benzophenone-UV filters from water samples

A method for simultaneous P_4,4,4,12Br–DecA deep eutectic solvent formation and UV filter extraction was developed.

Miniaturized analytical methods for determination of environmental contaminants of emerging concern - A review

The determination of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in environmental samples has become a challenging and critical issue. The present work focuses on miniaturized analytical strategies reported in the literature for the determination of CECs. The first part of the review provides brief overview of CECs whose monitoring in environmental samples is of particular significance, namely personal care products, pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors, UV-filters, newly registered pesticides, illicit drugs, disinfection by-products, surfactants, high technology rare earth elements, and engineered nanomaterials. Besides, an overview of downsized sample preparation approaches reported in the literature for the determination of CECs in environmental samples is provided. Particularly, analytical methodologies involving microextraction approaches used for the enrichment of CECs are discussed. Both solid phase- and liquid phase-based microextraction techniques are highlighted devoting special attention to recently reported approaches. Special emphasis is placed on newly developed materials used for extraction purposes in microextraction techniques. In addition, recent contributions involving miniaturized analytical flow techniques for the determination of CECs are discussed. Besides, the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of point of need and portable devices have been identified and critically compared with chromatographic methods coupled to mass chromatography. Finally, challenging aspects regarding miniaturized analytical methods for determination of CECs are critically discussed.

A disposable paper-based hydrophobic substrate for highly sensitive surface-enhanced Raman scattering detection

Detection of target analytes with high sensitivity and reproducibility remains a challenge for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) due to the lack of cost-effective and highly sensitive substrates. In this study, a hydrophobic SERS substrate capable of concentrating nanoparticles and analytes was prepared by spin-coating lubricating liquid onto commercial paper. The condensation effect of the paper-based hydrophobic substrate induced aggregation of gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) to generate ''hot spots'' for SERS and to drive analytes to the hot-spot areas for more sensitive detection. The obtained SERS signal intensity was 5-fold higher than that obtained using common paper, and a detection limit (LOD) of 4.3 × 10^-10 M for rhodamine 6G (R6G) was achieved. Randomly selected points on the substrate and different batches of substrates all exhibited high reproducibility, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) at 1362 cm^-1 is approximately 11%. A further application of the hydrophobic substrate was demonstrated by the detection of cytochrome C within a linear detection range of 3.90 × 10^-8 M-1.25 × 10^-6 M. In addition, the prepared substrate can obtain identifiable SERS spectra of cancer cells and non-cancer cells because a large number of AuNP or Au NPs clusters can adhere to cells, resulting in the construction of a 3D hotspot matrix. The disposable hydrophobic paper substrate eliminates the problem of solution diffusion, and also provides an effective platform for biomolecular screening detection.

Rapid microwave synthesis of dioxin-linked covalent organic framework for efficient micro-extraction of perfluorinated alkyl substances from water

To synthesize covalent organic framework (COF) via irreversible reactions is more challenging than by reversible ones. In this work, microwave-assisted synthesis is used to facilitate the nucleophilic substitution of 2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-4-pyridinecarbonitrile with 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexahydroxy triphenylene. The dioxin-linked COF, named TH-COF, was efficiently synthesized with extraordinarily large surface area of 1254 m² g^-1. With its high crystallinity, excellent thermal and chemical stabilities, TH-COF is used as the coating for the solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) of perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs). The adsorptive mechanism was evaluated with adsorption isotherm and kinetic adsorption. Adsorption energies are calculated based on the density functional theory. Following SPME with TH-COF-coated fibers, PFASs were eluted using 1 mL of 0.6% trifluoroacetic acid/methanol and analyzed through the ultra-performance liquid chromatography equipped with triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (UPLC-MS/MS). When applied to spiked real water samples, this method demonstrates good linearity (0.01-1000 ng L^-1) with R² ≥ 0.9945. The TH-COF-SPME-UPLC-MS/MS technique provides low limits of detection (0.0020-0.0045 ng L^-1), excellent precision (≤ 7.9%), and good fiber-to-fiber reproducibility (≤ 7.1%). The TH-COF-coated fibers can be reused at least 20 times without the loss of extraction performance. In addition, the relative recoveries from spiked real water samples are 89.5%-105%.

Direct immersion single-drop microextraction of semi-volatile organic compounds in environmental samples: A review

Single-drop microextraction (SDME) techniques are efficient approaches to pretreatment of aqueous samples. The main advantage of SDME lies in the miniaturization of the solvent extraction process, minimizing the hazards associated with the use of toxic organic solvents. Thus, SDME techniques are cost-effective, and represent less harm to the environment, subscribing to green analytical chemistry principles. In practice, two main approaches can be used to perform SDME - direct immersion (DI)-SDME and headspace (HS)-SDME. Even though the DI-SDME has been shown to be quite effective for extraction and enrichment of various organic compounds, applications of DI-SDME are normally more suitable for moderately polar and non-polar semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) using organic solvents which are immiscible with water. In this review, we present a historical overview and current advances in DI-SDME, including the common analytical tools which are usually coupled with DI-SDME. The review also focuses on applications concerning SVOCs in environmental samples. Currents trends in DI-SDME and possible future direction of the procedure are discussed.

Headspace solid-phase microextraction of semi-volatile ultraviolet filters based on a superhydrophobic metal-organic framework stable in high-temperature steam

Headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) of low volatile analytes from complex aqueous samples can be substantially facilitated by elevating the temperature of the samples. However, many SPME coatings prepared from novel sorptive materials may suffer from low stabilities in hot water steam. Herein, a superhydrophobic metal-organic framework (MOF) derived from decorating the metal-oxo nodes of the amino-functionalized UiO-66(Zr) with phenylsilane was prepared and successfully developed into a novel SPME fiber coating. The highest extraction efficiencies towards the semi-volatile ultraviolet (UV) filters were achieved when the aqueous samples were heated up to 100 °C. It was notable that the lab-made coating exhibited extraordinary stability towards hot water steam, probably because the hydrophobic groups capped on the MOF prevented water molecules from entering and deconstructing its lattice. Even after being treated with water steam under 100 °C for 21 h, the extraction performance of the coating remained unchanged, and the crystal structure of the MOF maintained. Furthermore, a negligible matrix effect was observed even in the samples containing humic acid. Under the optimal extraction and thermal desorption conditions, a method for determining UV filters in aqueous samples was established, which possessed low detection limits (0.6-2.1 ng L^-1), wide linear ranges (10-50000 ng L^-1), good inter-fiber reproducibility (2.3-6.0%, n = 6), and satisfying intra-fiber repeatability (1.8-5.8%, n = 3). The method was successfully applied in quantifying UV filters in environmental water samples. In addition, the lab-made NH₂-UiO-66(Zr)-shp-coated fiber was also suitable for the analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This study provided an effective strategy for preparing MOF coatings that can maintain their crystalline structures and high extraction performances in high-temperature steam.

Development of an analytical methodology based on fabric phase sorptive extraction followed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to determine UV filters in environmental and recreational waters

A novel method based on fabric phase sorptive extraction (FPSE) followed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) has been validated for the simultaneous determination of 11 UV filters (ethylhexyl salicylate, benzyl salicylate, homosalate, benzophenone-3, isoamylmethoxycinnamate, 4-methylbenzylidenecamphor, methyl anthranilate, etocrylene, 2-ethylhexylmethoxycinnamate, 2-ethylhexyl p-dimethylaminobenzoate, and octocrylene), in natural and recreational waters. Major experimental parameters affecting FPSE procedure have been optimized to obtain the highest extraction efficiency. Different types and sizes of sol-gel coated FPSE media, sample volume, extraction time, and type and volume of desorption solvent were evaluated. The optimal conditions involved the use of a (2.0 × 2.5) cm² FPSE device with PDMS based coating for the extraction of 20 mL of water for 20 min. The quantitative desorption of the target compounds was performed with 0.5-1 mL of ethyl acetate. The method was satisfactorily validated in terms of linearity, precision, repeatability and reproducibility. Recovery studies were performed at different concentration levels in real water matrices to show its suitability, obtaining mean values about 90% and satisfactory precision. LODs were at the low ng L^-1 in all cases. Finally, the validated FPSE-GC-MS/MS method was applied to different real samples, including environmental water (lake, river, seawater) and recreational water (swimming-pool), where 8 out of the 11 studied compounds were detected at concentrations between 0.12-123 μg L^-1. FPSE is proposed as an efficient and simple alternative to other extraction and microextraction techniques for the analysis of UV filters in waters. Since no matrix effects were observed, quantification could be carried out by conventional calibration with standard solutions, without the need to perform the complete FPSE procedure, thus allowing a higher throughput in comparison with other microextraction techniques.

Recyclable three-dimensional Ag nanorod arrays decorated with O-g-C3N4 for highly sensitive SERS sensing of organic pollutants

A three-dimensional (3D) substrate was developed by assembling a monolayer of graphitic carbon nitride (O-g-C₃N₄) on Ag nanorod arrays (Ag NRs) for sensitive and recyclable surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) detection. The prepared Ag NRs/O-g-C₃N₄ substrate not only generated a significant Raman enhancement effect as a result of the strong π-π stacking interaction between O-g-C₃N₄ and the analytes but also possessed excellent self-cleaning property via visible-light irradiation that was attributed to its outstanding catalytic performance. Highly sensitive SERS detection could be achieved with a LOD of 8.2 × 10^-10 M for R6 G, and the substrate could be used repeatedly for at least four cycles with tolerable intensity attenuation. In addition, the 3D substrate exhibited long-term stability originating from the electron-donor effect of O-g-C₃N₄ and high reproducibility due to the uniform decoration of O-g-C₃N₄ on the Ag NRs through the strong interaction. Furthermore, using Ag NRs/O-g-C₃N₄, the recyclable detection of antibiotics in a water sample was demonstrated with high sensitivity, which indicates that the 3D Ag NRs/O-g-C₃N₄ substrate is a promising candidate for eliminating the challenges of single-use SERS substrates and building a portable SERS platform to sense organic molecular species.

Target, Suspect and Non-Target Screening of Silylated Derivatives of Polar Compounds Based on Single Ion Monitoring GC-MS

There is growing interest in determining the unidentified peaks within a sample spectra besides the analytes of interest. Availability of reference standards and hyphenated instruments has been a key and limiting factor in the rapid determination of emerging pollutants in the environment. In this work, polar compounds were silylated and analyzed with gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to determine the abundant fragments within the single ion monitoring (SIM) mode and methodology. Detection limits and recoveries of the compounds were established in river water, wastewater, biosolid and sediment matrices. Then, specific types of polar compounds that are classified as emerging contaminants, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, in the environment were targeted in the Mgeni and Msunduzi Rivers. We also performed suspect and non-target analysis screening to identify several other polar compounds in these rivers. A total of 12 compounds were quantified out of approximately 50 detected emerging contaminants in the Mgeni and Msunduzi Rivers. This study is significant for Africa, where the studies of emerging contaminants are limited and not usually prioritized.

Vacuum-assisted sorbent extraction: An analytical methodology for the determination of ultraviolet filters in environmental samples

Vacuum-assisted sorbent extraction (VASE) has been applied in combination with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the determination of UV filters in water samples. VASE is a variant of headspace extraction which was developed in conjunction with the sorbent pen (SP) technology. This technique combines the advantages of both stir-bar assisted extraction and headspace solid-phase microextraction. The SP traps allowed both reduced pressure in-vial extraction and direct thermal desorption via a unique gas chromatographic injection port. The main parameters that affect the performance of VASE, including both extraction and desorption conditions, were extensively optimized. Under optimum conditions, extraction required 10 mL of sample within 40 mL vials, pH 3.5, ~30 s of air-evacuation, 14 h incubation at 70 °C, stirring at 200 rpm, and a final water management step conducted at ~ -17 °C for 15 min. Optimal thermal desorption required preheating at 260 °C for 2 min followed by desorption at 300 °C for 2 min. The beneficial effect of reduced-pressure extraction was demonstrated by comparing the UV filter extraction time profiles collected using VASE to an analogous atmospheric pressure procedure, resulting in up to a 3-fold improvement under optimized conditions. The VASE methodology enabled simultaneous extractions using different SPs without compromising the method reproducibility, which increases the overall sample throughput. The method was characterized by low limits of detection, from 0.5 to 80 ng L^-1, and adequate reproducibility, with inter-SP and inter-day relative standard deviation lower than 14%. Tap and lake water was successfully analyzed with the proposed methodology, resulting in relative recoveries of spiked samples ranging between 70.0 and 120%.