Effects of two biopesticides and salt on behaviour, regeneration and sexual reproduction of the freshwater planarian Girardia tigrina

Unveiling the Subtle Threats: The Neurobehavioral Impact of Chlorpyrifos on Girardia tigrina

Chlorpyrifos, an organophosphate insecticide widely used to control agricultural pests, poses a significant environmental threat due to its toxicity and persistence in soil and water. Our work aimed to evaluate the acute (survival) and chronic (regeneration, locomotion, and reproduction) toxicity of chlorpyrifos to the non-target freshwater planarian Girardia tigrina. The 48 h lethal concentration (LC50) of the commercial formulation, containing 480 g L-1 of chlorpyrifos, the active ingredient, was determined to be 622.8 µg a.i. L-1 for planarians. Sublethal effects were translated into a significant reduction in locomotion and delayed head regeneration (lowest observed effect concentration-LOEC = 3.88 µg a.i. L-1). Additionally, chlorpyrifos exposure did not affect planarian fecundity or fertility. Overall, this study demonstrates the potential of chlorpyrifos-based insecticides to harm natural populations of freshwater planarians at environmentally relevant concentrations. The observed toxicity emphasizes the need for stricter regulations and careful management of chlorpyrifos usage to mitigate its deleterious effects on aquatic ecosystems. By understanding the specific impacts on non-target organisms like G. tigrina, we can make more informed suggestions regarding the usage and regulation of organophosphate insecticides, ultimately promoting sustainable agricultural practices and environmental conservation.

Theoretical insights, degradation, and sub-lethal toxicity of thiamethoxam to the planarian Girardia tigrina

Advanced oxidative processes, such as Photo-Fenton, transform organic contaminants due to the attack by radicals. In this context, the lethal and sub-lethal effects of the Cruiser® 350FS (CRZ) with the active ingredient thiamethoxam (TMX) were investigated using the planarian Girardia tigrina. Degradation of thiamethoxam by the Fenton process was also assessed by using theoretical studies and the efficiency of Solar-Fenton versus Fenton. The 48 h LC50 value of CRZ for planarians was 478.6 mg L-1. The regeneration of planarians was significantly affected for concentrations ≥ 17 mg·L-1 of TMX (24 h). The Solar-Fenton showed a high degradation percentage reaching ~70%. The theoretical model showed the atoms of the TMX molecule that will suffer attacks from the formed radicals. Current results open new perspectives concerning the treatment of TMX in the aquatic environment because the 70% degradation seems to be sufficient to reach concentrations that do not induce sub-lethal effects in planarians. Further studies should determine if the by-products generated might be toxic for planaria or other organisms.

What happens when salinization meets eutrophication? A test using stream microcosms

Nutrient and salt pollution often co-occur in rivers and streams due to human activities (e.g., agriculture, urbanization). Thus, understanding the interactive effects of nutrients and salinity on freshwater ecosystems is critical for environmental management. We experimentally assessed the interactive effects of nutrient and salt pollution on stream microcosms using biofilm and macroinvertebrates as model systems. Six treatments were performed in triplicate: control (C: N-NH4+ = 0.05; P- PO43- = 0.037; Cl- = 33.5 mg L-1), intermediate nutrient (IN: N-NH4+ = 0.4; P- PO43- = 0.271; Cl- = 33. 5 mg L-1), high nutrient (HN: N-NH4+ = 0.84; P- PO43- = 0.80; Cl- = 33.5 mg L-1), salt (S: N-NH4+ = 0.05; P- PO43- = 0.037; Cl- = 3000 mg L-1), salt with intermediate nutrient (SIN: N-NH4+ = 0.4; P- PO43- = 0.27; Cl- = 3000 mg L-1) and salt with high nutrient (SHN: N-NH4+ = 0.84; P- PO43- = 0.80; Cl- = 3000 mg L-1). After 14 days of exposure, biofilm chlorophyll-a increased across all treatments, with cyanobacteria replacing diatoms and green algae. Treatments with no added nutrients (C and S) had more P uptake capacity than the rest. The indicator species analysis showed 8 significant taxa, with Orthocladius (Orthocladius) gr. Wetterensis and Virganytarsus significantly associated with the salinity treatment. Overall, salt pollution led to a very strong decline in macroinvertebrate richness and diversity. However, salt toxicity seemed to be ameliorated by nutrient addition. Finally, both structural equation models and biotic-abiotic interaction networks showed that complex biological interactions could be modulating the response of the biological communities to our treatments. Thus, our study calls for species-level assessments of salt and nutrient effects on river ecosystems and advocates for better management of co-occurring pollutants.

A broad-taxa approach as an important concept in ecotoxicological studies and pollution monitoring

Aquatic invertebrates play a pivotal role in (eco)toxicological assessments because they offer ethical, cost-effective and repeatable testing options. Additionally, their significance in the food chain and their ability to represent diverse aquatic ecosystems make them valuable subjects for (eco)toxicological studies. To ensure consistency and comparability across studies, international (eco)toxicology guidelines have been used to establish standardised methods and protocols for data collection, analysis and interpretation. However, the current standardised protocols primarily focus on a limited number of aquatic invertebrate species, mainly from Arthropoda, Mollusca and Annelida. These protocols are suitable for basic toxicity screening, effectively assessing the immediate and severe effects of toxic substances on organisms. For more comprehensive and ecologically relevant assessments, particularly those addressing long-term effects and ecosystem-wide impacts, we recommended the use of a broader diversity of species, since the present choice of taxa exacerbates the limited scope of basic ecotoxicological studies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of (eco)toxicological studies, focusing on major aquatic invertebrate taxa and how they are used to assess the impact of chemicals in diverse aquatic environments. The present work supports the use of a broad-taxa approach in basic environmental assessments, as it better represents the natural populations inhabiting various ecosystems. Advances in omics and other biochemical and computational techniques make the broad-taxa approach more feasible, enabling mechanistic studies on non-model organisms. By combining these approaches with in vitro techniques together with the broad-taxa approach, researchers can gain insights into less-explored impacts of pollution, such as changes in population diversity, the development of tolerance and transgenerational inheritance of pollution responses, the impact on organism phenotypic plasticity, biological invasion outcomes, social behaviour changes, metabolome changes, regeneration phenomena, disease susceptibility and tissue pathologies. This review also emphasises the need for harmonised data-reporting standards and minimum annotation checklists to ensure that research results are findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable (FAIR), maximising the use and reusability of data. The ultimate goal is to encourage integrated and holistic problem-focused collaboration between diverse scientific disciplines, international standardisation organisations and decision-making bodies, with a focus on transdisciplinary knowledge co-production for the One-Health approach.

A predatory social wasp does not avoid nestmates contaminated with a fungal biopesticide

Fungus-based biopesticides have been used worldwide for crop pest control as a safer alternative to chemical pesticides such as neonicotinoids. Both agrochemicals can be lethal and may also trigger side effects on the behavioral traits of non-target social insects, which play a crucial role in providing essential biological pest control services in agroecosystems. Here, we evaluated whether a commercial formulation of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana or the neonicotinoid imidacloprid causes mortality in foragers of Mischocyttarus metathoracicus. These social wasps are natural enemies of caterpillars and other herbivorous insects and inhabit both urban and agricultural environments in Brazil. We also tested whether wasps discriminate between biopesticide-exposed and unexposed conspecifics. Through a combination of laboratory (survival assay) and field experiments (lure presentation), along with chemical analyses (cuticular hydrocarbon profiles), we showed that topic exposure to the label rate of each pesticide causes a lethal effect, with the biopesticide exhibiting a slower effect. Moreover, wasps do not discriminate biopesticide-exposed from unexposed conspecifics, likely because of the similarity of their cuticular chemical profiles 24 h after exposure. Overall, the delayed lethal time at the individual level, combined with the indistinctive chemical cues of exposure and the lack of discrimination by conspecifics suggests that the fungal biopesticide may ultimately pose a threat to the colony survival of this predatory wasp.

Nanoplastic exposure inhibits feeding and delays regeneration in a freshwater planarian

The concentration of nanoplastics (NPs) is expected to increase in aquatic environments thus potentially threatening freshwater organisms through interactions with plastic particles that variously float, circulate in the water column or sink into the benthos. Studies into the mechanisms of any NP effects are still scarce, particularly with respect to the regenerative ability of biota for which there is no recognised model organism. The present study therefore aimed to investigate behavioural and regeneration responses of the freshwater planarian Girardia tigrina after 10 days exposed to along a gradient 0.01-10 mg/L of poly (styrene-co-methyl methacrylate) NPs (∼426 ± 175 nm). Exposure to NPs induced a significant reduction in planarian feeding rate even at low concentrations (LOEC of 0.01 mg/L), while head regeneration was delayed in a clear dose response way (LOEC of 0.1 mg/L for blastema length). Planaria locomotion assessed was not affected. Our results highlight the potential adverse effects of exposure to poly (styrene-co-methyl methacrylate) NPs and show that feeding behaviour and regeneration of a freshwater benthic organism can be indicators of the resulting toxicity. Planarians are becoming widely used model organisms in ecotoxicology and can help to address potential effects of plastic polymers on regeneration.

The combined effects of microbial insecticides and sodium chloride on the development and emergence of Chironomus xanthus

BACKGROUND

Freshwater organisms are facing increasing salinity levels, not only due to natural environmental processes, but also human activities, which can cause several physiological adaptations to osmotic stress. Additionally, these organisms might also have to deal with contamination by microbial insecticides. Our main goal was to use Chironomus xanthus to assess the chronic effects of increasing the salinity and commercial formulations of the microbial insecticides based on Bacillus thuringiensis subs. kurstaki (Btk) and Beauveria bassiana (Bb) as active ingredients, respectively.

RESULTS

A significant interaction of growth was observed between the biopesticide based on Bb and NaCl on the larvae of C. xanthus. Single exposure to NaCl and each one of the formulations demonstrated deleterious impacts not only on larval development, but also on the emergence success and emergence time of this nontarget insect, with potential consequences for freshwater ecosystems due to cascading effects.

CONCLUSION

The chronic effects induced by both bioinsecticides show that these formulations can have environmental impacts on nontarget freshwater insects. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

The sexual reproduction of the nontarget planarian Girardia tigrina is affected by ecologically relevant concentrations of difenoconazole: new sensitive tools in ecotoxicology

The fungicide difenoconazole, widely used to reduce the negative impacts of fungi diseases on areas with intensive farming, can reach freshwater systems causing deleterious effects on nontarget organisms. The acute and chronic toxicity of a commercial formulation containing 250 g L^-1 of difenoconazole (Prisma®) as the active ingredient was assessed in the freshwater planarian Girardia tigrina. The endpoints evaluated were feeding rate, locomotion, regeneration, and sexual reproduction of planarians. The estimated 48 h LC₅₀ of the commercial formulation on planarians expressed as the concentration of the active ingredient difenoconazole was 47.5 mg a.i.L^-1. A significant decrease of locomotion (LOEC = 18.56 mg a.i.L^-1), delayed regeneration (LOEC = 9.28 mg a.i.L^-1), and sexual reproduction impairment, i.e., decreased fecundity and fertility rates (LOEC ≤ 1.16 mg a.i.L^-1) were observed on planarians exposed to sublethal concentrations of the formulation. This study demonstrated the importance of using reproductive, physiological, and behavioral parameters as more sensitive and complementary tools to assess the deleterious effects induced by a commercial formulation of difenoconazole on a nontarget freshwater organism. The added value and importance of our research work, namely, the impairment of sexual reproduction of planarians, contributes to the development of useful tools for ecotoxicology and highlights the fact that those tools should be developed as guidelines for testing of chemicals. Our results showed that the use of reproductive parameters of Girardia tigrina would help to complement and achieve a better assessment of the risk posed by triazole fungicides to freshwater ecosystems.

When treatment increases the contaminant's ecotoxicity: A study of the Fenton process in the degradation of methylene blue

The degradation of dyes can generate harmful by-products, thereby requiring the need to evaluate the toxicity to aquatic organisms. This study aims to evaluate the chronic ecotoxicity of methylene blue dye degraded by the Fenton process using the non-target planarian Girardia tigrina as a sensitive bioindicator of environmental contamination. The bioassays evaluated the lethality of several concentrations of the untreated and degraded dye methylene blue (MB), as well as, their sub-lethal effects on locomotion, feeding, regeneration, and reproduction. In both acute and chronic tests, the degraded dye had a stronger toxic effect when compared to the untreated dye. This negative effect after treatment was mainly associated with the presence of residual hydrogen peroxide and iron (and consequently the hydroxyl radical formed). We conclude that the utilization of the Fenton process using less oxidizing agents should be considered as important alternatives for the protection of aquatic ecosystems, without compromising the efficient removal of MB.

Effects of microcystin-producing and non-microcystin-producing Microcystis on the behavior and life history traits of Chironomus pallidivittatus

Species of the genus Microcystis are among the most notorious cyanobacteria in eutrophic lakes worldwide, with ability present adverse effects on many aquatic organisms. In the surface sediments, Microcystis can be ingested by benthic macroinvertebrates such as Chironomus. However, the potential negative effects of Microcystis on Chironomus life history traits remain unclear. In the present study, we investigated the effect of different Microcystis diets on specific behaviors (burrowing activity, locomotion ability) and life history traits of Chironomus pallidivittatus (Diptera, Chironomidae). We also studied the interactive effects of microcystin-producing M. aeruginosa and temperature (15, 20, and 25 °C) stress on chironomid larvae. The results showed that the inhibitory effect on the cumulative emergence and burrowing activity of larvae was more severe when they were fed M. aeruginosa among the three Microcystis diets groups. Locomotion ability (i.e., locomotor distance and velocity) and adult dry weight decreased significantly in the group fed M. aeruginosa. Locomotion was significantly inhibited and mortality increased when the larvae were fed a mixture of M. aeruginosa and M. wesenbergii, which may have been the result of additive or synergistic effect of the toxins. Under the stress of lower temperature, C. pallidivittatus larvae exhibited weaker locomotion and growth ability, and the emerging adults were mostly male. At both the lower and higher temperature conditions, M. aeruginosa cause cumulative emergence decreased, and sex ratio imbalance, which inhibited the reproduction of larvae from the population perspective. The fourth-instar larvae showed better adaption to Microcystis than did the other instars. This study thus highlights the adverse effects of microcystin-producing M. aeruginosa on Chironomus. It also provides a novel perspective on how environmental factors may influence the behavior and life history traits of chironomid larvae, and how they may respond to cyanobacterial blooms and global warming.